The JI
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     
 

The Journal of Immunology, 2008, 181, 7292 -7299
Copyright © 2008 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Pace, E.
Right arrow Articles by Gjomarkaj, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Pace, E.
Right arrow Articles by Gjomarkaj, M.

Pleural Mesothelial Cells Express Both BLT2 and PPAR{alpha} and Mount an Integrated Response to Pleural Leukotriene B41

Elisabetta Pace2,*, Maria Ferraro{dagger}, Christopher H. Mody{ddagger}, Mario R. Melis*, Valeria Scafidi§, Anna Bonanno*, Mirella Profita*, Antonino Giarratano{ddagger} and Mark Gjomarkaj*

* Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, and {dagger} Dipartimento di Anestesiologia, Rianimazione e delle Emergenze, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy. {ddagger} Departments of Internal Medicine and Microbiology and Infectious Disease, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada; and § Dipartimento di Biopatologia e Metodologie Biomediche, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Leukotriene B4 (LTB4) plays a crucial role in the recruitment of neutrophils into the pleural space. We identified for the first time the mechanisms by which LTB4 interacts with mesothelial cells and recruits neutrophils in the pleural compartment. Primary pleural mesothelial cells express both the proinflammatory receptor for LTB4 BLT2, and the anti-inflammatory receptor for LTB4, PPAR{alpha}. Parapneumonic pleural effusions highly increase BLT2 expression and, via BLT2 activation, increase the adhesion between mesothelial cells and neutrophils and the expression of ICAM-1 on mesothelial cells. The block of PPAR{alpha} further increases both cell adhesion and ICAM-1 expression. BLT2 activation promotes the activation, on mesothelial cells, of STAT-1 but not the activation of NF-{kappa}B transcription factor. The increase of ICAM-1 expression is achieved via increased tyrosine phosphorylation activity since herbimycin, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, reduces and since Na orthovanadate, a tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, further increases ICAM-1 expression. This study demonstrates that pleural mesothelial cells, expressing both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory LTB4 receptors, are able to mount an integrated response to LTB4 with a prevalence of BLT2 activities in the presence of an inflammatory milieu within the pleura.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Leukotrine B4 (LTB4)3 in the pleural space is an important proinflammatory agent, released by both resident and not resident pleural cells, which contributes to the directed migration of activated neutrophils into the pleural space during inflammatory events (1). LTB4 is able to interact with two cell-surface receptors (BLT1 and BLT2) and with a nuclear receptor called PPAR{alpha}. The interaction of LTB4 with cell-surface receptors induces LTB4-mediated inflammatory activities while the interaction with PPAR{alpha} induces the catabolism of LTB4 and, in turn, limits LTB4-correlated inflammation (2).

The pleural mesothelium actively promotes extravasation of leukocytes by participating in adhesive interactions and by secreting chemoactractant molecules (1, 3). The increased interactions between β-2 integrins on neutrophils (specifically CD11b or CD18), and ICAM-1 on pleural mesothelial cells may lead to the increase in the adhesive interaction between mesothelial cells and the neutrophils and, in turn, to the increased neutrophil recruitment into the pleural space (4, 5, 6).

Neutrophils are the predominant leukocytes that are recruited into the pleural space during the early steps of many inflammatory responses (3) and are the prevalent cell population of parapneumonic effusions (1, 7). The underlying cellular and molecular events involved in the movement of neutrophils across the mesothelium into the pleural cavity are not completely elucidated. Furthermore, it is not known whether LTB4, released during the early events of inflammation, contributes to the adhesiveness of mesothelial cells and whether mesothelial cells are responsive to LTB4 in a tightly controlled manner. The aims of the present study were to evaluate whether: 1) mesothelial cells express the cell-surface receptors for LTB4 (BLT1 and BLT2), as well as the nuclear receptor for LTB4 (PPAR{alpha}); 2) LTB4, and parapneumonic pleural fluids (PF) modulate the adhesion between pleural mesothelial cells and neutrophils and whether this phenomenon is associated to the modulation of ICAM-1 expression on pleural mesothelial cells; and 3) the modulation of the ICAM-1 expression is related to the activation of specific transcription factors.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
PF collection

PFs were collected by thoracentesis from hospitalized patients with pneumonia (n = 8, age range 35 to 73 years). All subjects gave informed written consent and the study was approved by the institutional review board for human studies. The effusions were first classified as exudates by meeting at least one of the criteria described by Light (8). Standard clinical, laboratory, and radiological investigations were used to establish the diagnosis for each patient. Parapneumonic effusions were defined as exudates with a glucose concentration >60 mg/dl and pH >7.2 and no organism seen on Gram stain or found on PF culture in patients with pneumonia. No patients were undergoing anti-inflammatory or steroid therapies. The fluids were drawn into polypropylene bags containing heparin (10–20 IU/ml). The fluids were subsequently centrifuged at 400 x g for 10 min and cell-free fluids were immediately frozen at –70°C until they were used for subsequent analyses. The concentrations of LTB4 in parapneumonic pleural effusions were 236 ± 51 pg/ml.

Mesothelial cell cultures

Primary pleural mesothelial cells recovered from transudative pleural effusions, as previously described (9), were used in this study. The cells were cultured with Media 199 (Life Technologies) containing 10% FBS (Life Technologies), penicillin (100 U/ml) (Life Technologies), and streptomycin (100 µg/ml) (Life Technologies). Primary pleural mesothelial cells were used between four and eight passages.

Treatments

Mesothelial cells were stimulated with synthetic LTB4 (0.2 ng/ml) (Sigma-Aldrich), with PPAR{alpha} agonist (WY-14643;10 µM) (Sigma-Aldrich), with parapneumonic PFs, and with a BLT2 antagonist (LY255283) (1 µM) or with a PPAR{alpha} antagonist (MK886) (1 µM) (Cayman Chemical). The BLT2 and PPARa antagonists were added 1 h before cell stimulation. In preliminary experiments, we identified 18 h of stimulation as optimal time point for evaluating adhesion molecules and 1 h of stimulation as optimal time point for evaluating the STAT-1 or NF-{kappa}B nuclear translocation or for evaluating phosphorylated STAT-1 expression.

In some experiments, ICAM-1 expression on mesothelial cells was evaluated after the preincubation with herbimycin (Sigma-Aldrich) (2 µM; 2 h before cell stimulation) and Na orthovanadate (Sigma-Aldrich) (10 µM; 2 h before cell stimulation).

BLT1, BLT2, and PPAR{alpha} expression

The expression of BLT1 in pleural mesothelial cells and in neutrophils and the expression of BLT2 and PPAR{alpha} in pleural mesothelial cells was evaluated by flow cytometry using a FACStarPlus (BD Biosciences) analyser using rabbit polyclonal Abs anti-BLT1, anti-BLT2 and anti-PPAR{alpha} (Cayman Chemical) (1/250; for 1 h) followed by a FITC conjugated anti-rabbit IgG (DakoCytomation). To evaluate the expression of BLT1, BLT2, and of PPAR{alpha}, before incubation with rabbit polyclonal Abs, cells were permeabilized using a commercial fix-perm cell permeabilization kit (Caltag Laboratories). Negative controls were performed using rabbit immunoglobulins negative control (DakoCytomation). Peripheral blood neutrophils, isolated as previously described (1), were used as positive control for BLT1 expression. Data are expressed as geomean fluorescence intensity.

Mesothelial cell-neutrophil adhesion assay

Cell-adhesion assay was performed by a method previously described with minor modifications (10). In brief, mesothelial cells were seeded in 96-well plates at half-confluency and kept for 18 h alone, with synthetic LTB4, with PF supernatants, and with PFs supernatants in the presence of anti-BLT2 receptor or of anti-PPARa receptor. Peripheral blood neutrophils were isolated as previously described (1), labeled for 30 min with 20 µM of fluorocromic dye CMFDA (Molecular Probes), and added at the concentration 1 x 104 to the mesothelial layer for 20 min to promote adherence. The plates were washed and the number of adhering neutrophils was determined by measuring fluorescence at 525 nm in a Wallac Victor multilabel counter (Wallac). Cell adhesion was expressed as percentage of baseline.

Evaluation of ICAM-1 expression

The expression of ICAM-1 on the surface of mesothelial cells was determined by flow cytometry with a FACStarPlus analyzer (BD Biosciences). Fluorescein (FITC)-conjugated mouse anti-human ICAM-1 Ab (anti-CD54; clone 6.5B5; Dakopats) was used. Negative controls were performed using a FITC-conjugated mouse IgG1 (from Dakopats). Data are expressed as percentage of baseline geomean fluorescence intensity.

Western blot analysis for STAT-1 and NF-{kappa}B nuclear translocation

Western blot analysis for STAT-1 and NF-{kappa}B (11) was performed as previously described with minor modifications. In brief, mesothelial cells were lysed (10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4); 50 mM NaCl; 5 mM ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; 1% Nonidet P-40; 10 µg/ml PMSF) and protein were extracted. To study STAT-1 and NF-{kappa}B nuclear translocation, the protein extracts were treated to separate the cytoplasmic and nuclear protein fractions by using a commercial kit following the manufacturer’s directions (Pierce). An amount of 50 µg of total proteins was subjected to SDS-PAGE on 4–12% gradient gels (Novex) and blotted onto nitrocellulose membranes. These were blocked with PBS containing 3% BSA, 0.1% Tween 20, and then probed with a polyclonal Ab directed against human STAT-1 (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) (1/200; 1 h), human phospho-STAT-1 (Tyr701) (Cell Signaling Technology) (1/100, overnight), and human NF-{kappa}B (Santa Cruz Biotechnology) (1/100; 1 h). Revelation was performed with an ECL system (NEN) followed by autoradiography. Negative controls were performed including an isotype-control Ab. During each experiment, the detection of β-actin as housekeeping protein was performed. Data underwent densitometric analysis and were expressed as densitometric arbitrary units by normalization with the density of the band obtained for β-actin.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChiP) analysis

ChiP analysis was performed using the EZ-ChiP kit (Upstate-Millipore) following the manufacturer’s directions. The primary mesothelial cells stimulated with parapneumonic PFs were treated with formaldehyde and the crosslinked chromatin were sonicated to lengths spanning 200-1000 bp. The samples were precleared with 60 µl of protein A agarose and then incubated with a polyclonal Ab anti-human STAT1. Immunocomplexes were precipitated using protein A agarose. After washing, DNA fragments were isolated and purified with columns. PCR was performed using primers spanning the promoter region 3537 of ICAM-1 gene using the primers: 5' CAC AGA GTG AGA CTC CAT C 3' (forward) and 5' TGT TGT CCA GGC TGG AGT A 3' (reverse).

Statistics

Data are expressed as mean counts ± SD. The comparison between different experimental conditions was evaluated by ANOVA corrected with the Bonferroni test. For cell adhesion assay, paired t test was also used. p < 0.05 was accepted as statistically significant.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Primary mesothelial cells express membrane and nuclear receptor for LTB4

Because it has been previously demonstrated that LTB4 is present in exudative pleural effusions and acts as a potent chemotactic agent for neutrophils during pleural inflammation (1), it was first evaluated whether primary mesothelial cells expressed proinflammatory cell-surface LTB4 receptors and/or anti-inflammatory nuclear LTB4 receptor. Mesothelial cells coexpressed the anti-inflammatory nuclear receptor for LTB4 PPAR{alpha} and the proinflammatory membrane receptor for LTB4 BLT2, suggesting that mesothelial cells are responsive to pleural LTB4. As expected, mesothelial cells did not express the BLT1 receptor whose expression has been demonstrated to be limited to leukocytes (12) (Fig. 1A–C). Peripheral blood neutrophils, used as positive controls for BLT1 expression, highly expressed BLT1 (Fig. 1A).


Figure 1
View larger version (42K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 1. Primary pleural mesothelial cells express BLT2 and PPAR{alpha} receptors. Primary pleural mesothelial cells isolated from transudative pleural effusions were used for assessing BLT1, BLT2, and PPAR{alpha} expression by flow cytometry (see Materials and Methods for details). A, Representative histogram plots of the BLT1 expression in pleural mesothelial cells and in neutrophils. Closed curves, negative control; open curve, baseline expression of BLT1. B, Representative histogram plots of the BLT2 expression in pleural mesothelial cells. Closed curves, negative control; open curve, baseline expression of BLT2. C, Representative histogram plots of the PPAR{alpha} expression in pleural mesothelial cells. Closed curves, negative control; open curve, baseline expression of PPAR{alpha}.

 
Parapneumonic PFs increase the expression of BLT2 but not of PPAR{alpha} receptors

The effect of parapneumonic PFs on the expression of BLT2 as well as of PPAR{alpha} by primary pleural mesothelial cells was explored. Following the incubation with exudative parapneumonic PFs, pleural mesothelial cells showed a significantly higher increase of BLT2 expression in comparison to the increase observed for PPAR{alpha} expression, suggesting that the presence of an inflammatory milieu induces more proinflammatory rather than anti-inflammatory receptors for LTB4 on normal pleural mesothelial cells (Fig. 2).


Figure 2
View larger version (29K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 2. Parapneumonic PFs increase BLT2 and PPAR{alpha} receptors. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs (n = 8) for 18 h and then the expression of BLT2 and of PPAR{alpha} was assessed by flow cytometry. The results are expressed as geomean fluorescence intensity ± SD (A). Two replicates were performed from each pleural sample. *, p < 0.05. B, Two representative histogram plots of the BLT2 expression and of the PPARa expression. Open curve 1, negative controls; open curve 2, baseline; closed curve 3, PF.

 
Parapneumonic PFs increase the adhesiveness between mesothelial cells and neutrophils

The recruitment of neutrophils into the pleural space is associated to the generation of a chemotactic gradient as well as to the increased adhesion between neutrophils and mesothelial cells (4). Because exudative parapneumonic PFs are able to increase BLT2 receptors and because LTB4 has been demonstrated to increase the adhesion between neutrophils and endothelial cells in other compartments (6), the influence of PFs containing high levels of LTB4 (i.e., parapneumonic PFs) on the adhesion between pleural mesothelial cells and neutrophils was assessed. Interestingly, the addition of parapneumonic PFs (1) to mesothelial cell-neutrophil cocultures significantly increased the adhesion between these two cell types, and this phenomenon was reverted by the presence of a specific antagonist of BLT2 receptor (Fig. 3) and by the activation of PPAR{alpha} with a specific agonist. As expected, synthetic LTB4 also was able to increase the adhesiveness between these two cell types (Fig. 3). Differently, the presence of a specific antagonist of PPAR{alpha} further increased the adhesion between mesothelial cells and neutrophils (Fig. 3). These findings demonstrate that LTB4 present in parapneumonic PFs contributes to the increased adhesiveness of mesothelium toward neutrophils during pleural inflammatory processes via a prevalent activation of the proinflammatory BLT2 receptor.


Figure 3
View larger version (18K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 3. Parapneumonic PFs increase the adhesiveness between mesothelial cells and neutrophils. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs (n = 8), of synthetic LTB4 of anti-BLT2, anti-PPARa receptor, or in the presence of a PPAR{alpha} agonist (WY-14643) for 18 h and then the adhesiveness between primary pleural mesothelial cells and neutrophils were assessed (see Materials and Methods for details). Two replicates were performed from each pleural sample. Data are expressed as mean percentage of increase vs baseline ± SD. *, p < 0.05 by ANOVA; **, p < 0.05 by paired t test.

 
Parapneumonic PFs induce the increase of ICAM-1 expression on mesothelial cells

The next step was to determine whether the modulation of adhesion between mesothelial cells and neutrophils due to LTB4 was associated to the modulation of ICAM-1 on mesothelial cells. Interestingly, synthetic LTB4 and parapneumonic PFs were both able to increase the expression of ICAM-1 on mesothelial cells via the activation of BLT2 receptor because an antagonist of BLT2 receptor blocked this phenomenon. An antagonist of PPAR{alpha} further increased while an agonist of PPAR{alpha} decreased the expression of ICAM-1 on mesothelial cells, suggesting that the activation of this receptor may limit the proinflammatory activities promoted by LTB4 via the activation of BLT2 receptors (Fig. 4).


Figure 4
View larger version (24K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 4. Parapneumonic PFs increases the expression of ICAM-1 on primary mesothelial cells. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs (n = 8), of synthetic LTB4, of anti-BLT2, anti-PPARa receptor of synthetic LTB4 of anti-BLT2, anti-PPARa receptor and in the presence of a PPAR{alpha} agonist (WY-14643) for 18 h and then the expression of ICAM-1 by flow cytometry or by immunocytochemistry was assessed. Data are expressed as mean percentage of increase vs baseline ± SD. Two replicates were performed from each pleural sample. *, p < 0.05 vs PF. Representative histogram plot for ICAM-1 expression. 1, baseline; 2, synthetic LTB4; 3, PF; 4, PF + anti-BLT2; 5, PF + anti-PPAR{alpha}.

 
Parapneumonic PFs promote preferentially STAT-1 activation on mesothelial cells

Experiments were designed to better understand the mechanisms underlining the activity of BLT2 on ICAM-1 expression. Because the increase of ICAM-1 expression in other compartments is generated by the activation of specific transcription factors, the effect of parapneumonic PFs on NF-{kappa}B (Fig. 5) and on STAT-1 (Fig. 6) activation was explored. Synthetic LTB4 and parapneumonic PFs did not significantly modify the nuclear translocation of NF-{kappa}B (Fig. 5). Parapneumonic PFs promoted the nuclear translocation of STAT-1 (Fig. 6, A and C). The block of BLT2 by a specific antagonist abrogated this translocation, demonstrating that the activation of BLT2 leads to STAT-1 nuclear translocation (Fig. 6, A and C). A PPAR{alpha} antagonist did not significantly modify STAT-1 activation (Fig. 6, A and C). Synthetic LTB4 increased STAT-1 nuclear translocation, while the block of BLT2 receptor prevented this event (data not shown). The activation of STAT-1 was further confirmed by p(Tyr701) STAT-1 evaluation (Fig. 6, B and C). Moreover, we conducted ChIP assays with Abs specific to Stat1 (Fig. 7) and the results of these experiments showed that STAT-1 could be detected on the promoter region of ICAM-1 in mesothelial cells after incubation with PF.


Figure 5
View larger version (38K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 5. Effect of parapneumonic PFs on NF-{kappa}B activation on primary mesothelial cells. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs, of synthetic LTB4 and of anti-BLT2 receptor for 1 h and then the nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of NF-{kappa}B was assessed (see Materials and Methods for details) by Western blot analysis. Membranes were then stripped and incubated with goat polyclonal anti-β-actin. A, Signals corresponding to NF-{kappa}B on the various Western blots were semiquantified by densitometric scanning and normalized for β-actin. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. *, p < 0.05. B, Representative Western blot analysis of NF-{kappa}B expression. C, Cytoplasmic proteins. N, Nuclear proteins. 1, LTB4; 2, parapneumonic PF; 3, LTB4 + anti-BLT2; 4, parapneumonic PF + anti-PPAR.

 

Figure 6
View larger version (44K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 6. Effect of parapneumonic PFs on STAT-1 activation on primary mesothelial cells. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs, of synthetic LTB4 and of anti-BLT2 receptor for 1 h and then the nuclear and cytoplasmic expression of STAT-1 or of phospho-STAT (pSTAT-1) was assessed (see Materials and Methods for details) by Western blot analysis. Membranes were then stripped and incubated with goat polyclonal anti-β-actin. A, Signals corresponding to STAT-1 on the various Western blots were semiquantified by densitometric scanning and normalized for β-actin. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. *, p < 0.05. B, Signals corresponding to pSTAT-1 on the various Western blots were semiquantified by densitometric scanning and normalized for β-actin. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. *, p < 0.05. C, Representative Western blots of STAT-1, pSTAT-1, and β-actin expression. C, Cytoplasmic proteins. N, Nuclear proteins. 1, baseline; 2, parapneumonic PF; 3, parapneumonic PF + anti-BLT2; 4, parapneumonic PF + anti-PPAR{alpha}.

 

Figure 7
View larger version (32K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 7. STAT-1 is at the promoter of ICAM-1 on primary mesothelial cells. Primary pleural mesothelial cells were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs and then ChiP assay using anti-STAT1 Ab and PCR using primers spanning the promoter region 3537 of ICAM-1 gene were performed (see Materials and Methods for details) (n = 2). Lane 1, DNA marker; lane 2, negative control of PCR; lane 3, baseline; lane 4, parapneumonic PF number 1; lane 5, baseline; lane 6, parapneumonic PF number 2.

 
Increased tyrosine phosphorylation leads to the increased ICAM-1 expression

A first step in the activation of STAT-1 is the phosphorylation of tyrosine residues, and this event is tightly regulated by protein tyrosine kinases and protein tyrosine phosphatases (13, 14). The effect of herbimycin (a tyrosine kinases inhibitor) and of sodium ortho vanadate (a phosphotyrosine phosphatases inhibitor) on the expression of ICAM-1 was determined. Herbimycin reduced the increase of ICAM-1 expression (Fig. 8) due to synthetic LTB4 and to parapneumonic PFs, while sodium ortho vanadate further increased these phenomena (Fig. 8), suggesting that tyrosine phosphorylation is required for increasing ICAM-1 expression.


Figure 8
View larger version (28K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 8. Tyrosine phosphorylation is required for inducing ICAM-1 expression on primary mesothelial cells. Primary pleural mesothelial cells after the preincubation with herbimycin (Herb) (2 µM; for 2 h) or with Na orthovanadate (Na Van) (10 µM; for 2 h) were cultured in the absence and in the presence of parapneumonic PFs and of synthetic LTB4 for 18 h to assess ICAM-1 expression. The expression of ICAM-1 was evaluated by flow cytometry (see Materials and Methods for details). A, Data are expressed as mean percentage of increase vs baseline ± SD. Two replicates were performed from each pleural sample. *, p < 0.05 vs LTB4. **, p < 0.05 vs PF. Representative histogram plots for ICAM-1 expression with or without Herb or Na Van in the presence of synthetic LTB4 (B) or in the presence of a parapneumonic PF (C).

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
Disclosures
 References
 
LTB4 in the pleural space is an important proinflammatory agent, released by both resident and not resident pleural cells, which contributes to the migration of activated neutrophils into the pleural space during pleural inflammation (1).

The present study demonstrates for the first time that the response of the pleural mesothelium to LTB4 is the result of a balance between the activation of receptors for LTB4 with a proinflammatory outcome (BLT2) and the activation of a different receptor for LTB4 with an anti-inflammatory outcome (PPAR{alpha}). The prevalent activation of proinflammatory LTB4 receptors in the presence of an inflammatory milieu within the pleura may lead to an up-regulation of the adhesion between neutrophils and the mesothelium resulting in neutrophil retention on the surface of mesothelial cells.

Two types of G protein-coupled transmembrane domain receptors (GPCR) for LTB4 have been identified: BLT1 and BLT2 with a different localization and a different binding activity. While BLT1 receptors are highly expressed on leukocytes and have a high binding affinity for LTB4, BLT2 receptors are present, other than on leukocytes, on structural cells in a variety of body compartments and have a low binding affinity for LTB4 (12).

PPAR{alpha}, an orphan nuclear receptor, has also been reported to bind and to catabolize LTB4 and to limit inflammation since PPAR{alpha}-deficient mice exhibit a prolonged inflammatory response when challenged with LTB4 (15, 16). PPAR{alpha} activation inhibits NF-{kappa}B activation (17) and down-regulates chemoattractant production and neutrophils infiltration (18). Taken together these findings suggest that at the site of inflammation, the level and degradation of LTB4 determine the extent and the duration of an inflammatory response (19, 20).

We previously showed that pleural mesothelial cells are able to express 5-lipoxygenase and to release LTB4 upon LPS stimulation (1). Now, we demonstrate for the first time that pleural mesothelial cells express both BLT2 and PPAR{alpha} receptors but not BLT1 receptors showing that the structural cells of the pleura are also able to respond to LTB4. The expression of these receptors was evaluated in a primary mesothelial cell line isolated from transudative PFs to evaluate the expression of these receptors in an ex vivo model.

It is crucially important to gain insights into these mechanisms since the inflammation within the pleural space has unique features that distinguish it from inflammation in other organs. In solid organs, inflammatory cells gain access to the tissue via the vasculature, adhere to the endothelium, migrate through it, and then gain access to the tissue. Once through the basement membrane, they percolate within the tissue to the site of the inflammatory focus. By contrast, inflammatory cells that enter the pleural space must, in addition to crossing the endothelial barrier, cross the mesothelial barrier and enter a fluid filled compartment that is the pleural space. Pleural mesothelial cells actively contribute to the recruitment and to the accumulation of leukocytes within the pleural compartment modulating their adhesive properties and secreting soluble mediators with chemotactic activities (1, 3).

To clarify these aspects, we performed experiments using parapneumonic effusions because we wondered whether the presence of an inflammatory milieu might lead to a prevalence of the proinflammatory pathway. Parapneumonic effusions are ideal for this purpose, because they have an intense inflammatory milieu; they contain large numbers of neutrophils and high concentrations of biologically active LTB4 in comparison to other exudative PFs (1). Additionally, parapneumonic effusions avoid the confounding influences of the microbes, and consequently, their virulence products that might be present in empyema. In this study for the first time, it is demonstrated that parapneumonic effusions are able to induce a prominent increase of the proinflammatory receptor for LTB4 (BLT2) and the adhesion between pleural mesothelial cells and neutrophils while they induce a modest increase of anti-inflammatory (PPAR{alpha}) receptors for LTB4.

This phenomenon is associated to an increase of the constitutive expression of ICAM-1 by pleural mesothelial cells. It is conceivable that also an increase of β-2 integrins on neutrophils may contribute to the increased adhesion between pleural mesothelial cells and neutrophils because LTB4 is able to induce the expression of MAC-1 on neutrophils (21).

To further gain insight into these mechanisms, experiments with antagonists for BLT2 and for PPAR{alpha} were included to mimic a situation in which LTB4 activates exclusively PPAR{alpha} or BLT2 receptor, respectively. The finding that the block of BLT2 abrogates the increase of ICAM-1 and the cell adhesion induced by parapneumonic PFs and by LTB4, strongly suggests that the increased adhesiveness of pleural mesothelial cells during inflammatory processes in the pleural space may be induced by the activation of BLT2 receptors. The concentrations of LTB4 used in in vitro experiments were within the range of LTB4 concentrations in parapneumonic pleural effusions to reproduce a model of LTB4 receptors (BLT2 and PPAR{alpha}) stimulation as much close as possible to the in vivo stimulation of these receptors. The block of PPAR{alpha} further increases, while a PPAR{alpha} agonist reduces, the expression of ICAM-1 and the cell adhesion, suggesting that the function of PPAR{alpha} during pleural inflammation is to limit the proinflammatory responses including uncontrolled increased adhesiveness of pleural mesothelial cells. Mesothelial cells express ICAM-1 (22) and this molecule is shed from the surface of cells in a regulated manner (23). Although it has been demonstrated that shedding of ICAM-1 is a function of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (24) that in turn is regulated by LTB4 (25), and although mice lacking PPAR{alpha} have increased expression of ICAM-1 in the lungs (26), it is not known whether the activation of PPAR{alpha} limits the expression of ICAM-1 in pleural mesothelial cells increasing the shedding of ICAM-1 from the surface of cells.

The regulation of ICAM-1 expression is promoted by the activation of specific transcription factors. Parapneumonic PFs and synthetic LTB4 are able to induce STAT-1 activation via the activation of BLT2 receptors since the block of BLT2 negatively interferes with this phenomenon. On the other hand, the block of PPAR{alpha} does not affect STAT-1 activation, suggesting that the effect of PPAR{alpha} activation in ICAM-1 expression and cell adhesion is mediated by the activation of other transcription factors.

BLT2 is a trasmembrane receptor belonging to the GPCR. The activation of GPCR by their ligands may activate STAT-1 via two different pathways. One of them is the activation of STAT-1 by Src family kinases, and the other one is the activation of STAT1 by JAK1/2 (27, 28, 29). Tyrosine phosphorylation is a crucial event in STAT-1 activation. In the present study, the modulation of ICAM-1 expression by parapneumonic fluids and by synthetic LTB4 is linked to tyrosine phosphorylation events. Herbimycin, a tyrosin kinase inhibitor, reduced, while sodium ortho vanadate, a phosphotyrosine phosphatases inhibitor, further increased the ICAM-1 expression. These data are consistent with a previous report demonstrating that ICAM-1 in human T cells is regulated by tyrosine phosphorylation activity through STAT-1-dependent signaling pathways (30). Moreover, in our experimental model, the modulation of ICAM-1 expression was not associated to NF-{kappa}B but it was associated to STAT-1 activation as confirmed by chip assay showing that STAT-1 was located at the promoter of ICAM-1 gene. Consistently, it has been previously demonstrated that vanadate and peroxovanadium derivatives induce ICAM-1 expression via STAT-1 but not of NF-{kappa}B (31).

In conclusion, pleural mesothelial cells, expressing both proinflammatory transmembrane BLT2 receptor and anti-inflammatory nuclear PPAR{alpha} receptor, may provide an integrated response to pleural LTB4 present in parapneumonic effusions. A prolonged and prevalent activation of proinflammatory pathways inside the inflamed pleural cavity may lead to a persistence of pleural inflammation.

Other natural agonists (fatty acids, ecosanoids, metabolites generated by hydrolysis of lipoproteins) (32) may activate these receptors and further studies are needed to assess the content of these other natural ligands in PFs.


   Disclosures
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
References
 
The authors have no financial conflict of interest.


   Footnotes
 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1 This work was supported by the Italian National Research Council and by the Alberta Lung Association. Back

2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Elisabetta Pace, Istituto di Biomedicina e Immunologia Molecolare, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Ugo La Malfa, Palermo, Italy. E-mail address: pace{at}ibim.cnr.it Back

3 Abbreviations used in this paper: LTB4, leukotriene B4; GPCR, G protein-coupled transmembrane domain receptor; PF, pleural fluid; ChiP, chromatin immunoprecipitation. Back

Received for publication February 5, 2008. Accepted for publication September 4, 2008.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 

  1. Pace, E., M. Profita, M. Melis, A. Bonanno, A. Paterno, C. H. Mody, M. Spatafora, M. Ferraro, L. Siena, A. M. Vignola. 2004. LTB4 is present in exudative pleural effusions and contributes actively to neutrophil recruitment in the inflamed pleural space. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 135: 519-527. [Medline]
  2. Fiedler, J., F. R. Simon, M. Iwahashi, R. C. Murphy. 2001. Effect of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor {alpha} activation on leukotriene B4 metabolism in isolated rat hepatocytes. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299: 691-697. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  3. Antony, V. B.. 2003. Immunological mechanisms in pleural disease. Eur. Respir. J. 21: 539-544. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  4. Nasreen, N., K. A. Mohammed, J. Hardwick, R. D. Van Horn, K. L. Sanders, C. M. Doerschuk, J. W. Hott, V. B. Antony. 2001. Polar production of interleukin-8 by mesothelial cells promotes the transmesothelial migration of neutrophils: role of intercellular adhesion molecule-1. J. Infect. Dis. 183: 1638-1645. [Medline]
  5. Brady, H. R., S. Lamas, A. Papayianni, S. Takata, M. Matsubara, P. A. Marsden. 1995. Lipoxygenase product formation and cell adhesion during neutrophil-glomerular endothelial cell interaction. Am. J. Physiol. 268: F1-F12. [Medline]
  6. Palmblad, J. E., R Lerner. 1992. Leukotriene B4-induced hyperadhesiveness of endothelial cells for neutrophils: relation to CD54. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 90: 300-304. [Medline]
  7. Hamm, H., R. W. Light. 1997. Parapneumonic effusion and empyema. Eur. Respir. J. 10: 1150-1156. [Abstract]
  8. Light, R. W.. 1992. Pleural diseases. Dis. Mon. 38: 261-331. [Medline]
  9. Antony, V. B., J. W. Hott, S. L. Kunkel, S. W. Godbey, M. D. Burdick, R. M. Strieter. 1995. Pleural mesothelial cell expression of C-C (monocyte chemotactic peptide) and C-X-C (interleukin 8) chemokines. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 12: 581-588. [Abstract]
  10. Zeidler, R., M. Csanady, O. Gires, S. Lang, B. Schmitt, B. Wollenberg. 2000. Tumor cell-derived prostaglandin E2 inhibits monocyte function by interfering with CCR5 and Mac-1. FASEB J. 14: 661-668. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  11. Gagliardo, R., P. Chanez, A. M. Vignola, J. Bousquet, I. Vachier, P. Godard, G. Bonsignore, P. Demoly, M. Mathieu. 2000. Glucocorticoid receptor {alpha} and β in glucocorticoid dependent asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 162: 7-13. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  12. Tager, A. M., A. D. Luster. 2003. BLT1 and BLT2: the leukotriene B(4) receptors. Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent. Fatty Acids 69: 123-134. [Medline]
  13. Young, B. A., X. Sui, T. D. Kiser, S. W. Hyun, P. Wang, S. Sakarya, D. J. Angelini, K. L. Schaphorst, J. D. Hasday, A. S. Cross, et al 2003. Protein tyrosine phosphatase activity regulates endothelial cell-cell interactions, the paracellular pathway, and capillary tube stability. Am. J. Physiol. 285: L63-L75.
  14. Giovannetti, A., A. Aiuti, P. M. Pizzoli, M. Pierdominici, E. Agostini, A. Oliva, F. Dianzani, F. Aiuti, F. Pandolfi. 1995. Tyrosine phosphorylation pathway is involved in interferon-{gamma} (IFN-{gamma}) production; effect of sodium ortho vanadate. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 100: 157-163. [Medline]
  15. Devchand, P. R., A. Ijpenberg, B. Devesvergne, W. Wahli. 1999. PPARs: nuclear receptors for fatty acids, eicosanoids, and xenobiotics. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 469: 231-236. [Medline]
  16. Chinetti, G., J. C. Fruchart, B. Staels. 2000. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): nuclear receptors at the crossroads between lipid metabolism and inflammation. Inflamm. Res. 49: 497-505. [Medline]
  17. Okamoto, H., T. Iwamoto, S. Kotake, S. Momohara, H. Yamanaka, N. Kamatani. 2005. Inhibition of NF-{kappa}B signaling by fenofibrate, a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-{alpha} ligand, presents a therapeutic strategy for rheumatoid arthritis. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 23: 323-330. [Medline]
  18. Delayre-Orthez, C., J. Becker, I. Guenon, V. Lagente, J. Auwerx, N. Frossard, F. Pons. 2005. PPAR{alpha} downregulates airway inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide in the mouse. Respir. Res. 6: 91-100. [Medline]
  19. Devchand, P. R., H. Keller, J. M. Peters, M. Vazquez, F. J. Gonzalez, W. Wahli. 1996. The PPARalpha-leukotriene B4 pathway to inflammation control. Nature 384: 39-43. [Medline]
  20. Cuzzocrea, S., E. Mazzon, R. Di Paola, A. Peli, A. Bonato, D. Britti, T. Genovese, C. Muià, C. Crisafulli, A. P. Caputi. 2006. The role of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) in the regulation of acute inflammation. J. Leukocyte Biol. 79: 999-1010. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Alten, R., E. Gromnica-Ihle, C. Pohl, J. Emmerich, J. Steffgen, R. Roscher, R. Sigmund, B. Schmolke, G. Steinmann. 2004. Inhibition of leukotriene B4-induced CD11B/CD18 (Mac-1) expression by BIIL 284, a new long acting LTB4 receptor antagonist, in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Ann. Rheum Dis. 63: 170-176. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Nasreen, N., D. L. Hartman, K. A. Mohammed, V. B. Antony. Talc-induced expression of C-C and C-X-C chemokines and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in mesothelial cells. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 158: 971-978.
  23. Melis, M., E. Pace, L. Siena, M. Spatafora, A. Tipa, M. Profita, A. Bonanno, A. M. Vignola, G. Bonsignore, C. H. Mody, M. Gjomarkaj. 2003. Biologically active intercellular adhesion molecule-1 is shed as dimers by a regulated mechanism in the inflamed pleural space. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 167: 1131-1138. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Fiore, E., C. Fusco, P. Romero, I. Stamenkovic. 2002. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9/gelatinase B) proteolytically cleaves ICAM-1 and participates in tumor cell resistance to natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity. Oncogene 21: 5213-5223. [Medline]
  25. Leppert, D., S. L. Hauser, J. L. Kishiyama, S. An, L. Zeng, E. J. Goetzl. 1995. Stimulation of matrix metalloproteinase-dependent migration of T cells by eicosanoids. FASEB J. 9: 1473-1481. [Abstract]
  26. Cuzzocrea, S., S. Bruscoli, E. Mazzon, C. Crisafulli, V. Donato, R. Di Paola, E. Velardi, E. Esposito, G. Nocentini, C. Riccardi. 2008. PPAR-{alpha} contributes to the anti-inflammatory activity of glucocorticoids. Mol. Pharmacol. 73: 323-337. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  27. Chang, Y. J., M. J. Holtzman, C. C. Chen. 2004. Differential role of Janus family kinases (JAKs) in interferon-{gamma}-induced lung epithelial ICAM-1 expression: involving protein interactions between JAKs, phospholipase C{gamma}, c-Src, and STAT1. Mol. Pharmacol. 65: 589-598. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  28. Luttrell, D. K., L. M. Luttrell. 2004. Not so strange bedfellows: G-protein-coupled receptors and Src family kinases. Oncogene 23: 7969-7978. [Medline]
  29. Soriano, S. F., A. Serrano, P. Hernanz-Falcon, A. Martin de Ana, M. Monterrubio, C. Martinez, J. M. Rodriguez-Frade, M. Mellado. 2003. Chemokines integrate JAK/STAT and G-protein pathways during chemotaxis and calcium flux responses. Eur. J. Immunol. 33: 1328-1333. [Medline]
  30. Roy, J., M. Audette, M. J. Tremblay. 2001. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) gene expression in human T cells is regulated by phosphotyrosyl phosphatase activity: involvement of NF-{kappa}B, Ets, and palindromic interferon-{gamma}-responsive element-binding sites. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 14553-14561. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  31. Audette, M., L. Larouche, I. Lussier, N. Fugere. 2001. Stimulation of the ICAM-1 gene transcription by the peroxovanadium compound [bpV(Pic)] involves STAT-1 but not NF-{kappa}B activation in 293 cells. Eur. J. Biochem. 268: 1828-1836. [Medline]
  32. Ahmed, W., O. Ziouzenkova, J. Brown, P. Devchand, S. Francis, M. Kadakia, T. Kanda, G. Orasanu, M. Sharlach, F. Zandbergen, J. Plutzky. 2007. PPARs and their metabolic modulation: new mechanisms for transcriptional regulation?. J. Intern. Med. 262: 184-198. [Medline]




This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Pace, E.
Right arrow Articles by Gjomarkaj, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Pace, E.
Right arrow Articles by Gjomarkaj, M.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS