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The Journal of Immunology, 2008, 180, 3964-3968
Copyright © 2008 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.
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A Novel Mechanism of Complement Inhibition Unmasked by a Tick Salivary Protein That Binds to Properdin1

Katharine R. Tyson*, Christopher Elkins{dagger} and Aravinda M. de Silva2,*

* Department of Microbiology and Immunology and {dagger} Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Ixodes scapularis salivary protein 20 (Salp20) is a member of the Ixodes scapularis anti-complement protein-like family of tick salivary proteins that inhibit the alternative complement pathway. In this study, we demonstrate that the target of Salp20 is properdin. Properdin is a natural, positive regulator of the alternative pathway that binds to the C3 convertase, stabilizing the molecule. Salp20 directly bound to and displaced properdin from the C3 convertase. Displacement of properdin accelerated the decay of the C3 convertase, leading to inhibition of the alternative pathway. S20NS is distinct from known decay accelerating factors, such as decay accelerating factor, complement receptor 1, and factor H, which directly interact with either C3b or cleaved factor B.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Ixodes ticks are efficient vectors of various pathogens, including Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease (1, 2). Tick saliva contains multiple proteins that modulate host immunity and hemostasis, which facilitate blood feeding and pathogen transmission (3). One property of tick saliva is inhibition of the alternative complement pathway (4, 5, 6). Ixodes scapularis anti-complement protein (Isac)3 and salivary protein 20 (Salp20), and Ixodes ricinus anti-complement proteins I and II (Irac I and Irac II) are members of a large family of homologous proteins, referred to as the Isac-like protein (ILP) family, that specifically inhibit the alternative pathway by dissociating the components of the C3 convertase, C3b, and cleaved factor B (Bb) (7, 8, 9, 10, 11). While preventing the activation of the alternative pathway, Salp20 also protects Borrelia garinii from complement-mediated killing by normal human serum (NHS) (10), suggesting these anti-complement proteins facilitate tick feeding as well as pathogen transmission and survival.

In this work, we have characterized the specific mechanism by which Salp20 inhibits the alternative pathway. We demonstrate that Salp20 directly binds to properdin, a positive regulator of the alternative pathway. Salp20 displaces properdin from the C3 convertase, thus accelerating the decay of the alternative pathway C3 convertase.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Recombinant proteins, purified proteins, and Abs

Salp20 and chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) proteins containing C-terminal V5-epitope and 6X-histidine (His) tags (S20NS and CAT, respectively) were expressed and purified from stably transfected High Five cells as described previously (10). Recombinant protein purity was determined by SDS-PAGE, while purified protein concentrations were determined by Bradford analysis. Purified human complement components (C3b (catalog no. A114), factor B (fB; catalog no. A135), factor D (fD; catalog no. A136), and properdin (catalog no. A139)) and Abs directed against the complement components (goat anti-human C3 (catalog no. A213), goat anti-human fB (catalog no. A235), and goat anti-human properdin (catalog no. A239)) were obtained from CompTech. Mouse anti-His IgG was obtained from Qiagen and mouse anti-V5 IgG was obtained from Invitrogen Life Technologies.

Assays to measure the decay of C3 convertases

To measure the decay of C3 convertases formed from complement components in NHS in the presence of S20NS, ELISAs were performed as described previously (9, 10). Briefly, microtiter plates were coated with 0.1% agarose for 48 h at 37°C. To form C3 convertases in the wells, the agarose coated wells were then incubated with NHS in alternative pathway buffer (gelatin veronal buffer with Mg2+ and Ca2+ (GVB++); CompTech), 5 mM EGTA, 5 mM MgCl2) for 1 h at 37°C. The plate bound convertases were subsequently washed and incubated with various concentrations of S20NS for 30 min at 37°C. After incubation, the wells were washed with wash buffer (TBS, 10 mg/ml BSA, 2 mM MgCl2), and any remaining plate-bound Bb or properdin were detected by standard ELISA methods using either a primary goat anti-human fB Ab or a goat anti-human properdin Ab, followed by a secondary alkaline phosphatase (AP)-conjugated rabbit anti-goat IgG. OD405 values were determined and percent deposition was calculated using the following equation: ((OD405 sample – OD405 NHS with 25 mM EDTA)/(OD405 sample without S20NS or CAT – OD405 NHS with 25 mM EDTA)) x 100.

To measure the decay of C3 convertases formed from purified components in the presence of S20NS, we performed an ELISA adapted from Hourcade et al. (12). Microtiter plate wells were coated with 250 ng/well of C3b in PBS for 12 h at 4°C. After coating, the wells were washed with PBS and then blocked for 15 min at 23°C with binding buffer (PBS, 75 mM NaCl, 5 mM NiCl2, 4% BSA, 0.05% Tween 20). To form the C3 convertase, fB (400 ng/well) and fD (25 ng/well) in binding buffer were added to the wells and incubated at 37°C for 2 h. The wells were subsequently washed with PBS and then incubated with various concentrations of S20NS, CAT, or factor H (fH) in binding buffer for 30 min at 37°C. The wells were washed with TBST, and the OD405 was determined for any remaining Bb by ELISA using specific Abs. Percent deposition was calculated using the following equation: ((OD405 sample – OD405 C3b coated wells)/(OD405 sample without S20NS or CAT – OD405 C3b-coated wells)) x 100.

In some assays, properdin was included in the formation of the C3 convertase from purified complement components. After coating the wells with C3b, fB (50 ng/well), fD (25 ng/well), and properdin (50 ng/well) in Mg2+ binding buffer (PBS, 75 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 4% BSA, 0.05% Tween 20) were incubated in the wells for 2 h at 37°C. Plate-bound Bb and properdin were detected by standard ELISAs. In these assays, the concentration of fB was lower than in the assays lacking properdin because properdin stabilized the C3 convertase more efficiently than the substitution of Mg2+ with Ni2+ in the assays lacking properdin. Because the convertase was stabilized more efficiently, less fB was needed to achieve equivalent OD405 readings for fB deposition between the two assays. Percent deposition was calculated as described above. To form C3b-properdin complexes (C3bP), plates were coated with C3b as described above and properdin (50 ng/well) was subsequently added. Bound properdin was detected as described.

Cofactor activity assays

To investigate the cofactor activity of S20NS during factor I (fI)-mediated degradation of C3b, cofactor activity assays were performed following a modified protocol of McRae et al. (13). Briefly, 200 ng of C3b was incubated with various concentrations of S20NS, fH, or CAT and 400 ng of fI in reaction buffer (10 mM Tris-Cl (pH 7.5), 150 mM NaCl) for 30 min at 37°C. After incubation, C3b degradation products were analyzed by immunoblots using a primary goat anti-C3 Ab and a secondary AP-conjugated rabbit anti-goat IgG.

To determine whether S20NS degraded C3b in the presence of fH, 200 ng of C3b were incubated with 400 ng of either S20NS or fI and 1 µg of fH in reaction buffer for 30 min at 37°C. C3b degradation products were then detected by immunoblotting.

Assays to detect Salp20 binding to properdin

To detect direct binding of S20NS to properdin, we performed immunoprecipitations and analyzed the precipitates by immunoblot. S20NS (150 ng) was incubated with properdin (450 ng) at 37°C for 30 min in binding buffer (PBS, 75 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 0.05% Tween 20) and then added to blocked protein-A sephadex beads (Sigma-Aldrich) coated with 1 µg of mouse anti-V5 IgG for 1 h at 37°C. The sephadex beads were washed and resuspended in nonreducing SDS-PAGE loading dye. Samples were subjected to SDS-PAGE and immunoblotting with Abs specific for either S20NS or properdin.

As an alternative method to detect S20NS binding to properdin, microtiter plate wells were first coated with 100 ng/well of S20NS, CAT, or C3b for 12 h at 4°C. The wells were then blocked and incubated with 100 ng/well properdin for 1 h at 37°C. After incubation, the wells were washed. To detect plate bound properdin, the wells were incubated with a primary goat anti-properdin Ab and a secondary AP-conjugated rabbit anti- goat IgG.

Saturation binding assays

To determine the relative binding affinity of properdin for either S20NS or C3b, we performed a solid-phase binding assay. Microtiter plates were coated with a saturating amount of either S20NS (10 ng/well) or C3b (10 ng/well) for 12 h at 4°C in 0.1 M carbonate binding buffer (pH 9.20). After coating, the wells were blocked with binding buffer for 1 h at 37°C and then incubated with increasing concentrations of properdin in binding buffer (PBS, 75 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 0.05% Tween 20) at 37°C for 1 h. The wells were then washed with TBST, and bound properdin was detected by an ELISA using a primary goat anti-human properdin Ab and a secondary AP-conjugated rabbit anti-goat Ab. Development of the substrate was stopped after 3 min by the addition of 3 M NaOH. The OD405 was determined and plotted, and relative Kd values were calculated using GraphPad Prism 4 (GraphPad Software).


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
S20NS specifically inhibits the alternative complement pathway by dissociating the C3 convertase

Isac and related tick salivary proteins, including S20NS, specifically inhibit the alternative complement pathway by dissociating the components of the C3 convertase (5, 9, 10, 11). In the current study, the mechanism of inhibition of the alternative pathway by S20NS was confirmed by performing an agarose-based ELISA as described previously (9). In this assay, C3 present in NHS is activated by agarose-coated microtiter plates. C3 activation leads to the formation of an active convertase on the agarose consisting of covalently bound C3b and Bb (9). When increasing concentrations of S20NS were incubated with preformed covalently bound C3 convertases, the amount of bound Bb was reduced (IC50 of S20NS = 0.8 µg/ml) (Fig. 1). Equal concentrations of purified recombinant CAT protein, a negative control protein expressed from the same expression vector as S20NS in High Five cells, did not disrupt the C3 convertase. Previous studies have demonstrated that covalently attached C3b is unaffected in the presence of S20NS (10). Together, these results indicate that S20NS inhibits the alternative complement pathway by specifically dissociating Bb from the C3 convertase, similar to the activity of Isac and related family members (9, 10, 11). Because the IC50 of S20NS = 0.8 µg/ml, we chose to use concentrations of either 1 or 2 µg/ml S20NS for subsequent experiments.


Figure 1
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  		FIGURE 1. S20NS inhibits the alternative complement pathway by dissociating the C3 convertase. C3 convertases were preformed on agarose surfaces from complement components in NHS. Ten-fold dilutions of S20NS or CAT were then added to the preformed convertases and the amount of remaining Bb was determined by ELISA. The error bars represent 2 SD from the mean where n = 6.

 
S20NS is a unique regulator of the alternative pathway

Because S20NS and Isac inhibit the alternative pathway by dissociating Bb from the C3 convertase, it has been hypothesized that Salp20 and Isac act in a manner similar to fH, a natural negative regulator of the alternative pathway (9). Human fH is a serum glycoprotein that directly binds C3b, displacing Bb and causing decay acceleration of the C3 convertase (14, 15). In addition, fH also acts as a cofactor for fI-mediated degradation of C3b (14, 16, 17). To determine whether S20NS acted by the same mechanism as fH, we performed ELISAs to measure the decay of C3 convertases in the presence of S20NS or fH. In these assays, we formed C3 convertases in the wells of microtiter plates from purified complement components (C3b, fB, and fD) and then incubated S20NS or various control proteins with the convertases. After the incubation, we detected any remaining bound Bb in the convertases by ELISA. The C3 convertases formed from purified components were disrupted by fH as indicated by the reduction in the amount of deposited Bb (Fig. 2A). Surprisingly, however, S20NS displayed no effect (Fig. 2A). These results indicate that in this assay S20NS does not share similar activity to fH. Moreover, these results also demonstrate that S20NS dissociates C3 convertases formed from NHS (Fig. 1) but not convertases formed from purified complement components (Fig. 2A).


Figure 2
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  		FIGURE 2. S20NS does not dissociate the C3 convertase by a mechanism similar to fH or fI. A, C3 convertases were preformed in microtiter plate wells from purified complement components (C3b, fB, and fD) and washed. S20NS (1 µg/ml), fH (1 µg/ml), CAT (1 µg/ml, negative control), or buffer alone (0 µg/ml) were then added to the preformed convertases and the amount of remaining bound Bb was determined by ELISA. The error bars represent 2 SD from the mean where n = 6. *, Statistical significance (p = 0.008) between the 0 and 1 µg/ml samples of fH as measured by a Student t test. B, Various concentrations of S20NS or fH were incubated with C3b in the presence of fI, and C3b degradation products, represented by the 67- and 43-kDa bands, were visualized by Western blots using a polyclonal goat anti-hC3 Ab. C, S20NS or fI were incubated with C3b in the presence of fH. C3b degradation products were visualized by Western blots as described in B; M, marker.

 
Experiments were also performed to determine whether S20NS acted as a cofactor for fI-mediated degradation of C3b, similar to fH. S20NS was mixed with purified fI and the mixture was then added to purified C3b. Degradation products of the C3b {alpha}-chain (C3b {alpha}'-chain), 67- and 43-kDa fragments, were detected by immunoblots with specific Abs. Various concentrations of either S20NS or CAT were incapable of mediating fI degradation of C3b, unlike fH, which when incubated in the presence of fI, resulted in the degradation of C3b (Fig. 2B).

Because S20NS did not act as a cofactor for fI-mediated C3b degradation like fH, experiments were done to test whether S20NS functioned similarly to fI and degraded C3b in the presence of fH. When S20NS was mixed with fH and then incubated with C3b, we observed no degradation of C3b, whereas fI incubated with fH and C3b resulted in C3b degradation (Fig. 2C). Together, these results demonstrate that S20NS disrupts the C3 convertase by a mechanism that is different from both fH and fI.

S20NS inhibits the alternative pathway by displacing properdin from the C3 convertase

S20NS dissociated the components of the C3 convertase when the convertase was formed from NHS (Fig. 1) but not from purified complement components (Fig. 2A). The discrepancy in the activity of S20NS between the two assays is likely due to differences in the composition of the convertases formed from either NHS, which potentially contain C3b, Bb, and properdin, or from purified complement components, which contain only C3b and Bb. Properdin is a positive regulator of the alternative pathway that binds and stabilizes the C3 convertase, significantly increasing its half-life (18, 19). To determine whether the inhibitory activity of S20NS was potentially mediated through properdin, we formed C3 convertases from purified complement components in the presence of properdin and then incubated S20NS or control proteins with the convertases. When S20NS was incubated with C3 convertases containing properdin, ~90% of Bb was displaced (Fig. 3), in contrast to its effect on convertases lacking properdin (Fig. 2A). fH displaced Bb from C3 convertases formed in either the presence or absence of properdin (Figs. 2A and 3).


Figure 3
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  		FIGURE 3. S20NS dissociates the C3 convertase only in the presence of properdin. C3 convertases were formed from purified components (C3b, fB, and fD) in the presence of properdin and then washed. S20NS (1 µg/ml), fH (1 µg/ml), or buffer (0 µg/ml) were added to the preformed convertases and the amount of remaining bound Bb was determined by ELISA. The error bars represent 2 SD from the mean where n = 6. *, Statistical significance between the 0 and 1 µg/ml samples as measured by a Student t test where p < 0.001.

 
After establishing that S20NS was only active against convertases containing properdin, experiments were done to determine whether S20NS displaced properdin from the C3 convertase. S20NS displaced properdin from C3 convertases formed from purified components (Fig. 4A) as well as from convertases formed from NHS (Fig. 4B). In addition, S20NS also displaced properdin from complexes containing only C3bP, demonstrating the specificity of S20NS for properdin (Fig. 4C). Unlike S20NS, fH did not displace properdin from C3 convertases (Fig. 4A) or from C3bP complexes (Fig. 4C). Together, these results demonstrate that S20NS uniquely accelerates the decay of C3 convertases by specifically displacing properdin from the convertase.


Figure 4
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  		FIGURE 4. S20NS dissociates properdin from the C3 convertase. A, C3 convertases were formed from purified complement components as described in Fig. 3. S20NS (2 µg/ml), fH (2 µg/ml), or buffer (0 µg/ml) were then incubated with the preformed convertases, and bound properdin was detected by ELISA. B, C3 convertases were formed from complement components in NHS as described in Fig. 1. S20NS (2 µg/ml), CAT (2 µg/ml, negative control), or buffer (0 µg/ml) were then incubated with the preformed convertases and bound properdin was detected by ELISA. C, C3bP complexes were formed from purified C3b and properdin. S20NS (2 µg/ml), fH (2 µg/ml) or buffer (0 µg/ml) were then incubated with the complexes, and bound properdin was detected by ELISA. The error bars represent 2 SD from the mean where n = 6. *, Statistical significance between the 0 and 2 µg/ml samples of S20NS as measured by a Student t test where p < 0.001.

 
S20NS binds properdin

To determine whether S20NS directly interacted with properdin to dissociate the C3 convertase, S20NS and properdin were incubated together and S20NS was next immunoprecipitated using an Ab that bound to its C-terminal V5-epitope tag. The precipitates were then immunoblotted for either S20NS or properdin with specific Abs. In the immunoblots, we detected S20NS as well as properdin in the precipitates (Fig. 5A), indicating that S20NS directly bound to properdin.


Figure 5
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  		FIGURE 5. S20NS binds properdin. A, S20NS (S), properdin (P), or S20NS previously incubated with properdin (S+P) were immunoprecipitated (IP) with a monoclonal anti-V5 Ab against an epitope tag on S20NS. Immunoprecipitates were then analyzed by Western blots using specific Abs directed against properdin ({alpha}-fP) or S20NS ({alpha}-His). B, Microtiter plate wells were coated with S20NS, CAT (negative control), or C3b (positive control). The wells were washed, blocked, and then incubated with properdin. Bound properdin was detected by ELISA. The error bars represent 2 SD from the mean where n = 6. C, Microtiter plate wells were coated with either S20NS or C3b. Increasing concentrations of properdin were then added to the wells, and bound properdin was detected by ELISA. The data depict a single experiment performed in triplicate that is representative of three independent experiments. The error bars represent the SE from the mean.

 
The interaction between Salp20 and properdin was also confirmed by ELISA. Microtiter plate wells were coated with S20NS and then incubated with properdin. After incubation, bound properdin was detected with specific Abs. In wells coated with either S20NS or C3b, we detected specific binding of properdin when compared with the negative control, CAT (Fig. 5B).

In addition to studying the direct interaction between S20NS and properdin, we also calculated the relative binding affinity of properdin for either S20NS or C3b by performing solid-phase saturation binding assays. In these assays, microtiter plates were coated with equal amounts of either S20NS or C3b. Increasing concentrations of properdin were then added to the wells, and bound properdin was detected with specific Abs. Properdin binding to S20NS saturated at a lower concentration than properdin binding to C3b (Fig. 5C). The relative Kd of properdin binding to S20NS = 0.669 nM where the relative Kd of properdin binding to C3b was >85 nM. These results indicate properdin binds to S20NS with an affinity that is >100-fold higher than its affinity for C3b.


   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
Disclosures
 References
 
In this study, we have demonstrated that S20NS is only active against C3 convertases containing properdin. The simplest mechanism consistent with our data is that S20NS directly interacts with properdin, causing its dissociation from the C3 convertase and the subsequent decay acceleration of the convertase. This model is supported by the observations that 1) properdin directly bound to Salp20 with a relative affinity that was at least 100-fold higher than the affinity of properdin for C3b and 2) Salp20 treatment reduced the levels of properdin on preformed C3 convertases and C3bP complexes. We cannot completely rule out alternative models such as properdin facilitating necessary contacts between Salp20 and C3bBb, allowing S20NS to bind the convertase directly and cause decay acceleration. However, as we have not found any S20NS physically associated with the inactivated convertase (data not shown), we favor the model in which Salp20 acts by directly displacing properdin from the convertase.

All of our studies were performed with insect cell-expressed rS20NS, which we believe functions almost identically to native Salp20 expressed in tick saliva. Valenzuela et al. (9) have demonstrated that native Isac, purified directly from tick salivary gland extracts, inhibited the alternative complement pathway, likely by dissociating the C3 convertase. This result supports the idea that the activity S20NS closely mimics the activity of native Salp20.

Our proposed model for S20NS mediated displacement of properdin from the C3 convertase is consistent with the previous studies (5). Lawrie et al. (5) determined that I. ricinus salivary gland extracts (SGE) inhibited the activity of C3 convertases formed from NHS on erythrocyte surfaces, but had no effect on C3 convertases formed from purified complement components. In addition, when cobra venom factor (CVF) was used as an activator of complement in the presence of NHS, I. ricinus SGE displayed no inhibitory activity against the CVFBb convertase. Because properdin was absent in the pure component and CVF assays, these negative results could be explained by our model where the active inhibitory component in tick SGE, in particular, S20NS or related ILP family members, acts through properdin.

The decay accelerating activity of S20NS is unique and distinct from any of the characterized alternative pathway decay accelerating factors, decay accelerating factor, complement receptor 1, and fH, which directly interact with C3bBb or C3b to destabilize the C3 convertase (15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25). S20NS displaced properdin from C3 convertases and C3bP complexes, whereas fH did not displace properdin in our assays. In a previous study, Hourcade (18) used surface plasmon resonance to demonstrate that fH binding to C3 convertases results in the decay of C3 convertases and the dissociation of properdin. We may not have observed properdin dissociation following fH treatment because C3 complexes formed in our ELISAs differ from the convertases formed in the surface plasmon resonance study. Specifically, the C3 convertase complexes formed in our assays are likely to contain both complete C3 convertases and C3bP complexes. The properdin displaced by S20NS in our assays might be mainly derived from C3bP complexes, which are not affected by fH.

Even though properdin is not an active component of the C3 convertase, it is essential for the stabilization and full activity of the convertase (19, 26). Gupta-Bansal et al. and Perdikoulis et al. (26, 27) have demonstrated that Abs directed against properdin are capable of inhibiting the alternative pathway. Recent studies have also shown that properdin is capable of binding to cell surfaces and initiating the alternative pathway by providing a platform for the assembly of the C3 convertase (28). Because properdin is vital for effective complement activation, it is an attractive target for inactivation by pathogens or blood-feeding organisms. One example of a virulence factor that targets properdin is streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B, which acts to degrade properdin, allowing the pathogenic group A streptococci to resist opsonophagocytosis mediated by complement (29).

Salp20 is a member of the ILP family, containing at least 49 members (7, 8, 10, 11). In addition to Salp20, several members of this family, specifically Isac, Irac I, Irac II, S20Lclone 12, and S20Lclone 2, inhibit the alternative pathway by decay acceleration of the C3 convertase (9, 10, 11) (data not shown). It is likely that these proteins also interact with properdin.

Properdin is composed of short N- and C-terminal regions separated by 6 thrombospondin type I repeats (TSRs) (30), which make up the majority of the protein. We propose that Salp20 and other ILP family members specifically bind the TSRs of properdin to cause its displacement from the C3 convertase. The TSRs found in properdin and several other proteins primarily bind sulfated glycoconjugates and glycosaminoglycans (31, 32). Interestingly, S20NS contains multiple N- and O-linked glycans that make up almost half the m.w. of the mature protein (10). These carbohydrate modifications may potentially be sulfated glycoconjugates and glycosaminoglycans, allowing S20NS to resemble the sulfated glycoconjugates and bind the TSRs of properdin.

In addition to properdin, TSRs are found in other complement proteins, cell adhesion molecules, and proteases, many of which regulate host hemostasis and innate immunity (33). In addition to their roles in complement inhibition, we speculate different ILP family members may target different TSR-containing proteins to alter host hemostasis and innate immunity, facilitating tick feeding. ILP family members may prove to be useful for developing antitick vaccines as well as novel therapies for complement-mediated diseases.

Note added in proof.

During the review of this manuscript, a relevant paper was published (34). Couvreur et al. (34) describe five new members of an I. ricinus family of anticomplement proteins that inhibit the alternative complement pathway by binding properdin, similar to S20NS. This work further supports our findings in that multiple Ixodes species produce families of anticomplement proteins that bind properdin, indicating the importance of properdin in the activation of the alternative complement pathway.


   Acknowledgments
 
We thank Anne Broadwater and Holly Patterson (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC (UNC)) for technical assistance and Nate Rigel and Miriam Braunstein (UNC) for providing the anti-His Ab. We also thank Bill Messer (UNC) for assistance with statistical analyses. We thank Michael Frank (School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC), Kari Hacker (UNC), and Vivian Chen (UNC) for helpful discussions.


   Disclosures
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
References
 
The authors have no financial conflict of interest.


   Footnotes
 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1 This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grant U01 AI058263. Back

2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Aravinda M. de Silva, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, CB No. 7290 Chapel Hill, NC 27599. E-mail address: desilva{at}med.unc.edu Back

3 Abbreviations used in this paper: Isac, I. scapularis anti-complement protein; Irac, I. ricinus anti-complement protein; ILP, Isac-like protein; NHS, normal human serum; Salp20, salivary protein 20; CAT, chloramphenicol acetyltransferase; AP, alkaline phosphatase; fB, factor B; Bb, cleaved factor B; fH, factor H; fI, factor I; fD, factor D; C3bP, C3b-properdin complex; SGE, salivary gland extract; CVF, cobra venom factor; TSR, thrombospondin type I repeat. Back

Received for publication November 27, 2007. Accepted for publication January 16, 2008.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 

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