The JI
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     
 

The Journal of Immunology, 2007, 179, 1842-1854
Copyright © 2007 by The American Association of Immunologists, Inc.
This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Data Supplement
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Domínguez-Punaro, M. C.
Right arrow Articles by Gottschalk, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Domínguez-Punaro, M. C.
Right arrow Articles by Gottschalk, M.

Streptococcus suis Serotype 2, an Important Swine and Human Pathogen, Induces Strong Systemic and Cerebral Inflammatory Responses in a Mouse Model of Infection1

María C. Domínguez-Punaro*, Mariela Segura{ddagger}, Marie-Michèle Plante{dagger}, Sonia Lacouture*, Serge Rivest{dagger} and Marcelo Gottschalk2,*

* Groupe de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses du Porc, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, St.-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada; {dagger} Laboratory of Molecular Endocrinology, Centre Hospitalier de l’Université Laval, St.-Foy, Québec, Canada; and {ddagger} Centre for the Study of Host Resistance, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, Montréal, Québec, Canada


   Abstract
Top
 Abstract
Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Streptococcus suis, an important swine and human pathogen, causes septic shock and meningitis. The pathogenesis of both systemic and CNS infections caused by S. suis is poorly understood. A hematogenous model of infection in CD1 mice was developed to study the systemic release of cytokines during the septic shock phase and the proinflammatory events in the CNS associated with this pathogen. Using a liquid array system, high levels of systemic TNF-{alpha}, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-{gamma}, CCL2, CXCL1, and CCL5 were observed 24 h after infection and might be responsible for the sudden death of 20% of animals. Infected mice that survived the early sepsis later developed clinical signs of meningitis and exhibited lesions in the meninges and in numerous regions of the brain, such as the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and corpus callosum. Bacterial Ags were found in association with microglia residing only in the affected zones. In situ hybridization combined with immunocytochemistry showed transcriptional activation of TLR2 and TLR3 as well as CD14, NF-{kappa}B, IL-1beta, CCL2, and TNF-{alpha}, mainly in myeloid cells located in affected cerebral structures. Early transcriptional activation of TLR2, CD14, and inflammatory cytokines in the choroid plexus and cells lining the brain endothelium suggests that these structures are potential entry sites for the bacteria into the CNS. Our data indicate an important role of the inflammatory response in the pathogenesis of S. suis infection in mice. This experimental model may be useful for studying the mechanisms underlying sepsis and meningitis during bacterial infection.


   Introduction
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Infections caused by Streptococcus suis serotype 2 are a problem worldwide in the swine industry. In swine, S. suis infection is associated with meningitis, septicemia, endocarditis, and arthritis (1). Moreover, S. suis is an agent of zoonosis, afflicting people in close contact with infected pigs or pork-derived products (2). The clinical presentation of S. suis infection may vary from asymptomatic bacteremia to fulminant systemic disorder. Meningitis is the most striking feature; the presence of fibrin, edema, and cellular infiltrates in the meninges and choroid plexus along with adjacent encephalitis are the most frequently observed histopathological characteristics (3). People who survive the infection may develop important sequelae such as permanent deafness (2, 4). Recently, a serious S. suis outbreak in China resulted in >200 human cases with a fatality rate of nearly 20%. Symptoms reported in this outbreak included high fever, malaise, nausea, and vomiting, followed by nervous symptoms, s.c. hemorrhage, septic shock, and coma in severe cases (5). Virulence factors associated with S. suis are poorly defined. To date, the antiphagocytic capsular polysaccharide as well as other putative virulence factors, such as the hemolysin (suilysin), cell wall-associated and extracellular proteins, fibronectin-binding proteins, and a serum opacity factor, have been described (6, 7).

Elucidation of the pathogenesis of both systemic and CNS infections caused by S. suis remains a challenge. It is believed that pigs are infected with S. suis via airborne transmission and that bacteria, once in the blood, interact with different leukocyte populations as well as endothelial cells and then migrate to different organs and cause tissue damage (8). In the event, for unknown reasons, that bacteria fail to cause acute fatal septicemia, S. suis is able to reach the CNS through mechanisms that are only partially understood (9). It has been demonstrated that S. suis adheres to human brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMEC)3 and exerts a cytotoxic effect that involves suilysin (9). In addition, interactions between S. suis and epithelial cells from the choroid plexus have been observed using an in vitro model in which this pathogen induces a loss of blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier function (10). Both mechanisms might lead to a breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), as described for other pathogens (11, 12).

Clinical and neuropathological studies with meningitis-associated bacteria have shown that a fatal disease outcome can be attributed to the host inflammatory response which leads to intracranial complications, including brain edema, increased intracranial pressure, and cerebrovascular insults. Indeed, up-regulation of proinflammatory mediators and increased leukocyte trafficking may contribute to the breakdown of the BBB (13). S. suis induces BMEC to release arachidonic acid and different proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which might help bacteria migrate through the BBB and modulate local inflammation (14, 15). Additionally, S. suis induces phagocytes to secrete cytokines, chemokines, PGE2, and matrix metalloproteinase-9, mediators which are also implicated in the disruption of the BBB (16, 17, 18, 19). Lastly, S. suis up-regulates the expression of adhesion molecules by monocytes, consequently increasing adherence to endothelial cells (20). Although the exact mechanisms underlying the inflammatory response induced by S. suis are unknown, in vitro experiments showed that cytokine and chemokine production by S. suis-activated phagocytes is mediated through CD14-dependent and independent pathways (18). More recently, we demonstrated in vitro that TLR2 plays an important role in the recognition of S. suis through a MyD88-dependent mechanism (21).

The CNS, although commonly considered an immunologically privileged site, is capable of mounting a coordinated innate immune response along with the expression of different immunomodulatory mediators (22). Different types of cells may play an inflammatory role. Microglial cells, the macrophage-like population within the CNS, represent the first line of defense against invading pathogens and have proinflammatory effector functions (23). Astrocytes, the major glial cell type in the CNS, also contribute to the inflammatory response in the brain. Both types of cells express constitutively low levels of mRNA encoding different TLRs which can be notably increased following the binding of specific ligands (23, 24). To date, the inflammatory activities in the brain as well as the proinflammatory role of both microglia and astrocytes during CNS infections associated with S. suis have not been studied.

The recently documented increase in severity of S. suis infection in humans underscores the critical need to better understand factors associated with pathogenesis of S. suis infection (5). In the present study, we developed an adult mouse model of streptococcal meningitis and encephalitis after i.p. infection with a virulent S. suis serotype 2 strain. Using this model, we studied the systemic release of different cytokines during the septic shock phase observed within hours after infection. In addition, the cerebral innate immune response in mice that survived the septic phase, but developed clinical signs of meningitis at later stages of the infection, was studied using mRNA in situ hybridization. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a streptococcal meningitis/encephalitis model using an i.p. infection route in adult mice.


   Materials and Methods
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Bacterial strain, growth conditions, and production of antiserum

S. suis serotype 2 strain 31533 was used for the experimental infection. This is an encapsulated, suilysin-positive virulent strain that has been widely used in several cell stimulation studies (15, 17, 18, 19, 25). Bacteria were grown overnight onto sheep blood agar plates at 37°C and isolated colonies used as inocula for 5 ml of Todd-Hewitt broth (THB; Difco Laboratories), which was incubated for 8 h at 37°C with agitation. Working cultures were prepared by transferring 10 µl of 1/1000 dilutions of 8-h cultures into 30 ml of THB which was incubated for 16 h at 37°C with agitation. Stationary phase bacteria were washed twice in PBS (pH 7.3). Bacterial pellet was then resuspended in THB until an OD600 nm value of 0.4 was achieved, which corresponded to 5 x 108 CFU/ml. The inoculum for experimental infection was prepared with a 1/10 dilution of the resuspended bacteria in THB to obtain a final concentration of 5 x 107 CFU/ml. This final suspension was plated onto blood agar to accurately determine the CFU per milliliter. Specific polyclonal antiserum against S. suis serotype 2 was obtained as previously described (26).

Experimental infection

Female, 6-wk-old CD1 mice (Charles River Laboratories) were acclimated to standard laboratory conditions of 12-h light/12-h dark cycle with free access to rodent chow and water. All experiments involving mice were conducted in accordance with the guidelines and policies of the Canadian Council on Animal Care and the principles set forth in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals by the Animal Welfare Committee of the Université de Montreal. A total of 145 animals were included in the study. On the day of the experiment, a 1-ml volume of the bacterial suspension (5 x 107 CFU/ml) or the vehicle solution (sterile THB) was administrated by i.p. injection. Three series of preliminary and independent trials were performed for both systemic and CNS infection studies to establish optimal bacterial dose and time points. Preliminary data obtained in these prestudies showed results consistent with those obtained in the major experiments described bellow.

Study of the systemic innate immune response

A total of 36 infected and 12 noninfected mice were assigned to the bacteriological and histopathological studies as well as the systemic measurement of proinflammatory molecules. Samples were taken at 3, 6, 12, 24, 30, and 36 h and at 3, 6, 9, and 12 days post infection (p.i.) and the following studies were performed:

Clinical parameters of disease and mortality. A group of 10 mice were monitored three times daily for mortality and clinical signs of septic disease, such as depression, swollen eyes, rough hair coat, lethargy, and nervous signs of meningitis.

Determination of viable bacteria in organs. At each designated time, three infected and one noninfected mice were anesthetized with CO2. Blood was collected by cardiac puncture and the brain, liver, and spleen were obtained aseptically. The organs (0.05 g/organ) were trimmed, placed in 500 µl of PBS (pH 7.3), and homogenized with a vortex. Then, 50 µl of 10–2 and 10–4 dilutions of the homogenate in PBS was plated onto blood agar plates. Blood samples (50 µl) were also plated. All samples were plated using an Autoplate 4000 Automated Spiral Plater (Spiral Biotech). Blood agar plates were incubated overnight at 37°C. Colonies were counted and expressed as CFU/0.05 g for organ samples or CFU per milliliter for blood samples. In addition, a 5-ml THB tube was inoculated with 300 µl of the remaining supernatant from homogenates or with 10 µl of blood and cultured at 37°C overnight with agitation. These THB cultures were plated only when the cultures plated with the Spiral Plater were negative due to low numbers of viable bacteria in the organs. Although not quantitative, a positive THB culture indicates the presence of bacteria in the organ.

Histopathological studies. Samples from the brain, heart, liver, and spleen were fixed in 10% buffered formalin. After paraffin embedding, 4-µm-wide tissue sections were stained with H&E according to standard protocol and examined under light microscopy.

Plasma collection and measurement of cytokines and chemokines. Blood from CO2-anesthetized mice was collected by cardiac puncture into heparinized tubes and centrifuged at 10,000 x g for 10 min to obtain plasma. Samples were preserved at –80°C until analysis. Levels of IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12 (p40/p70), TNF-{alpha}, IFN-{gamma}, CCL2 (MCP-1), CXCL1 (KC), and CCL5 (RANTES) in plasma were determined using a liquid multiarray system (Luminex). Commercial multiplex-coated beads, biotinylated Abs, and Beadlyte microtiter 96-well filter plates were obtained from Upstate Group. Each multiplex assay was performed in duplicate following the manufacturer’s specifications. Data were collected using the Luminex-100 system Version IS 2.2 and analyzed by MasterPlex Quantitation Software (MiraiBio). Standard curves for each cytokine and chemokine were obtained using the reference concentrations supplied by the manufacturer. Results are the mean of two independent experiments.

Study of the cerebral innate immune response

A total of 55 infected and 22 noninfected mice were analyzed in this set of experiments. For all studies, samples were taken at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 h as well as at 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, and 14 days p.i. At each designated time, 5 infected and 2 noninfected mice were deeply anesthetized with an i.p. injection of a mixture of ketamine hydrochloride (Bimeda-MTC) and xylazine (Bayer), and then rapidly perfused transcardially with 0.9% saline, followed by 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) in 0.1 M borax buffer (pH 9.5 at 4°C). Brains were rapidly removed from the skulls, postfixed for 2–8 days, and placed in a solution containing 10% sucrose diluted in 4% paraformaldehyde-borax buffer overnight at 4°C. The frozen brains were mounted onto a microtome (Reicher-Jung) and cut into 25 µm coronal sections from the olfactory bulb to the end of the medulla. The sections were collected in a cold cryoprotectant solution (0.05 M sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.3), 30% ethylene glycol, 20% glycerol) and stored at –20°C.

cRNA probes

Plasmids for the synthesis of the cRNA probes have described previously (27, 28). Plasmids were linearized, and the sense and antisense riboprobes were synthesized as reported (27, 28). Radioactive cRNA copies were obtained by incubating 250 ng of linearized plasmids in 6 mM MgCl2, 40 mM Tris (pH 7.9), 2 mM spermidine, 10 mM NaCl, 10 mM ATP/GTP/CTP, 100 µCi [{alpha}-35S]UTP (Dupont-NEN; NEG 039H), 20 U of RNAsin (Promega), and 10 U of either T7, SP6, or T3 RNA polymerase for 60 min at 37°C. Unincorporated nucleotides were removed using the ammonium acetate precipitation method, and 100 µl of DNase solution (1 µl of DNase, 5 µl of 5 mg/ml tRNA, 94 µl of 10 mM Tris/10 mM MgCl2) was added 10 min before phenol-chloroform extraction. The cRNA was precipitated with 80 µl of 5 M ammonium acetate and 500 µl of 100% ethanol for 20 min on dry ice. The pellet was dried and resuspended in 50 µl of 10 mM Tris/1 mM EDTA. A probe containing 107 cpm was mixed into 1 ml of hybridization solution (500 µl of formamine, 60 µl of 5 M NaCl, 10 µl of 1 M Tris (pH 8.0), 2 µl of 0.5 M EDTA (pH 8.0), 50 µl of 20x Denhart’s solution, 200 µl of 50% dextran sulfate, 50 µl of 10 mg/ml tRNA, 10 of µl 1 M DDT, (118 µl of diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) water – volume of probe used). This solution was mixed and heated for 10 min at 65°C before being spotted on slides (27, 28).

In situ hybridization histochemistry

Histochemical localization of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, CD14, I{kappa}B{alpha} (an index of NF-{kappa}B activation), IL-1beta, IL-6, TNF-{alpha}, CCL2 (MCP-1), and mouse proteolipid protein (PLP) mRNA was performed on every 12th section of the whole rostrocaudal extent of each brain using in situ hybridization with [35S]cRNA probes as described previously (27, 28, 29). All solutions were treated with DEPC and sterilized to prevent RNA degradation. Briefly, tissue sections mounted onto poly-L-lysine-coated slides were desiccated overnight under vacuum, fixed in 4% PFA for 30 min, and digested with 10 µl/ml proteinase K in 0.1 M Tris HCl (pH 8.0) and 50 mM EDTA (pH 8.0) at 37°C for 25 min. Brain sections were rinsed in sterile DEPC water, followed by a solution of 0.1 M triethanolamine (pH 8.0), acetylated in 0.25% acetic anhydride in 0.1 M triethanolamine, and dehydrated through graded concentrations of ethanol (50, 70, 95, and 100%). After vacuum drying for a minimum of 2 h, 90 µl of hybridization mixture (107 cpm/ml) was spotted onto each slide, sealed under a coverslip, and incubated at 60°C overnight (~15–20 h) in a slide warmer. Coverslips were then removed and the slides rinsed in 4x SSC at room temperature (SSC 1x is composed of 0.15 M NaCl and 15 mM trisodium citrate buffer at pH 7.0). Sections were digested with 20 µg/ml RNase A at 37°C for 30 min, rinsed in descending concentrations of SSC (2x, 1x, 0.5x SSC), washed in 0.1x SSC for 30 min at 60°C, dehydrated with graded concentrations of ethanol, and vacuum-dried for 2 h. Sections were exposed at 4°C to x-ray films (Biomax; Kodak) for 1–3 days. Slides were defatted in xylene, dipped in NTB-2 nuclear emulsion (Kodak; diluted 1/1 with distilled water), exposed for 7 (I{kappa}B{alpha} and IL-1beta transcripts), 8 (PLP transcript), 14 (CD14, TNF-{alpha} and CCL2 transcripts), 15 (TLR2 and TLR3 transcripts), 19 (TLR4) or 31 days (IL-6), then developed in a D19 developer (Kodak) for 3.5 min at 14–15°C, washed 15 s in water, and fixed in a rapid fixer (Kodak) for 5 min. Tissues were rinsed in running distilled water for 1–2 h, counterstained with thionin (0.25%), dehydrated with graded concentrations of ethanol, cleared with xylene, and sealed with distrene plasticizer xylene mounting medium.

Qualitative analysis

The anatomical identification of brain structures was based on the Paxinos and Franklin’s Atlas (30). The relative intensity of TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, CD14, I{kappa}B{alpha}, IL-1beta, IL-6, TNF-{alpha}, CCL2, and PLP mRNA expression throughout the brain of each infected animal was determined on x-ray film images and graded according to the scale of undetectable (–), low to undetectable (+/–), low (+), moderate (++), strong (+++), or very strong (++++) signal (31).

Combined immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization

In situ hybridization was combined with immunohistochemistry to identify the cellular sources expressing TLR2, I{kappa}B{alpha}, and CCL2 (MCP-1) in the brain parenchyma of mice after systemic injection of S. suis. Every 12th section of the brain was processed by the avidin-biotin method with peroxidase as a substrate. Microglial cells were labeled with an Ab against the anti-ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (iba1; provided by Dr. Y. Imai, National Institute of Neuroscience, Kodaira, Japan), as previously described (32). Astrocytes were labeled with an Ab against glial fibrillary acidic protein (DakoCytomation). Briefly, sections were rinsed with potassium-PBS (KPBS; 2.2 mM K2H2PO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4, and 138 mM NaCl in milliQ water at pH 7.4), incubated with primary Ab, washed once with KPBS before incubation with biotinylated secondary Abs (Vector Laboratories), and then rinsed again with KPBS before a final incubation with an avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex (Vectastain ABC Elite kit; Vector Laboratories). After several washes in KPBS, brain sections were reacted in 0.05% 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) and 0.003% hydrogen peroxide. Thereafter, sections were rinsed in KPBS, mounted, desiccated, fixed in 4% PFA, and digested by proteinase K. Prehybridization, hybridization, and posthybridization steps were performed as described above, but shorter dehydration times (ethanol 50, 70, 95, 100%) were used to prevent discoloration of immunoreactive cells. The slides were dried and then exposed and developed as described above.

Immunohistochemistry for S. suis

Immunohistochemical localization of S. suis was also performed on every 12th section of the whole rostrocaudal extent of each brain. Brain sections were washed three times for 15 min each in KPBS, followed by a 20-min incubation at room temperature with solution A (0.4% Triton X-100, 4% goat serum, and 1% BSA in KPBS). The sections were incubated with a primary polyclonal Ab against S. suis (1/6000 in solution A) for 18 h at 4°C, followed by three 5-min washes with solution B (0.02% Triton X-100 and 0.05% BSA in KPBS), incubation with the secondary Ab diluted 1/500 in solution B of a commercial biotinylated anti-rabbit IgG (Vector Laboratories) for 90 min, and three 15-min washes with solution B. Immunoreaction was displayed by the addition of avidin-biotin-peroxidase complex-labeled polymer and the substrate DAB (Vector Laboratories) as per the manufacturer’s instructions. The sections were washed three times for 15 min each in KPBS and then counterstained with Nissl stain (0.25% thionine solution) to obtain a general index of cellular morphology. The tissues were mounted onto slides and observed under light microscopy.

Determination of acute demyelination

The myelin content was determined via Sudan black B staining (SBB) as described before (29). Briefly, brain sections mounted onto poly-L-lysine-coated slides were dehydrated with graded concentrations of ethanol (50 and 70%; 2 min each) and incubated for 1 h in SBB solution (Sigma-Aldrich; 0.3% saturated solution in 70% ethanol). The sections were rinsed in 70% ethanol until the desired contrast was reached and then washed with water. Tissues were dehydrated with graded concentrations of ethanol (50 and 70%; 2 min each), cleared with xylene for 1 min (two times), and coverslipped. In addition, the level of demyelination was correlated to the level of PLP mRNA expression in specific areas of the brain using in situ hybridization as described above.


   Results
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 
Systemic and CNS symptoms appear at different times after i.p. infection

During the course of infection, clinical signs of sepsis were depression, rough hair coat, swollen eyes, weakness, and death. Mortality of 20% due to septicemia was observed before 48 h p.i. The appearance of clinical signs of meningitis was observed in 40% of remaining infected mice between days 4 and 9 p.i. These mice exhibited normal characteristics before the sudden appearance of nervous signs, which consisted of hyperexcitation, episthotonus, opisthotonus (supplemental video 1),4 bending of the head toward one side, walking in circles (supplemental video 2), and strong locomotive problems of mainly paresis of the forelimbs. Some mice displayed sudden spinning while in lateral recumbence (supplemental video 3). In addition, mice developed unilateral or bilateral exophthalmia, with corneal opacity, probably in association with increased intracranial pressure.

Bacteria survive several days in mice after i.p. infection

After i.p. infection with S. suis, mice developed bacteremia which lasted for several days. S. suis was isolated from all infected mice that were tested. Bacteria were found in the blood, liver, spleen, and brain. From 3 h to day 3 p.i., bacterial counts in the blood exceeded 1 x 108 CFU/ml, then decreased between days 6 and 9 p.i. to a median of 2 x 102 CFU/ml, and finally disappeared at day 12 p.i. (Fig. 1A). Viable counts in the liver and spleen were comparable and presented similar kinetics. From 3 h to day 3 p.i., bacterial counts from these organs were higher than 1 x 107 CFU/organ in all sampled animals. Counts diminished drastically at day 6 p.i., and by day 12 p.i. were negative in the spleen or qualitatively positive in the liver (growth after broth enrichment) (Fig. 1A). In contrast, bacterial counts in the brain showed a different pattern. Although in other organs viable counts were very similar and showed well-defined kinetics among sampled mice, bacterial loads in the brain were highly variable between individual mice and between sampling times (Fig. 1B). No clear kinetic pattern of bacterial counts could be identified in the brain. Nevertheless, bacterial counts were relatively high as early as 3 h p.i., ranging from 104 to 108 CFU/0.05 g of brain. This range of bacterial load was observed throughout the different p.i. time points up to day 3 p.i. Although bacterial loads decreased by day 6 p.i., the presence of S. suis in the brain could be detected qualitatively at day 12 p.i. (Fig. 1B).


Figure 1
View larger version (21K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 1. Bacterial distribution in different organs from mice infected i.p. with S. suis. A, Bacterial loads in the liver and spleen are expressed as CFU/0.05 g of tissue and in the blood as CFU per milliliter. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM of at least three infected mice per time point. B, Bacterial counts in the brain. Results are expressed as CFU/0.05 g of tissue. Each {blacktriangleup} represents one mouse.

 
S. suis-associated lesions were correlated with CNS symptoms

Although it was possible to isolate bacteria from various tissues at different p.i. time points, histopathological lesions associated with the infection were found in the brain of infected mice that developed clinical signs of meningitis. These mice presented bacterial loads ranging from 103 to 104 CFU/0.05 g of tissue. No significant histopathological changes in the brain, heart, liver, or spleen were observed in mice that succumbed during the early phase of sepsis, which occurred during the first 48 h p.i. From day 6 p.i., the most important changes in the brain of mice with clinical nervous symptoms comprised the presence of neutrophils across blood vessel walls, hemorrhagic foci and malacia mainly at the somatosensory cortex, striatum, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus, together with gliosis and the presence of inflammatory foci composed primarily of neutrophils. At these time points, it was possible to observe great numbers of bacteria inside blood vessels (bacterial emboli), surrounded by a rim of neutrophils (Fig. 2A). As the infection progressed, by day 9 p.i., there was complete destruction of the corpus callosum, including the external capsule, where numerous neutrophils and cellular debris were observed (Fig. 2B). In several mice, the meninges were thickened and severely infiltrated by a mixture of neutrophils, macrophages, and lymphocytes (Fig. 2C). Occasionally, in severely affected mice, a moderate dilation of the aqueduct was apparent. Outside the brain, histopathological lesions were observed only in the heart of some mice that developed clinical nervous symptoms. These lesions, consisting of dense infiltrates of neutrophils in the myocardium of the interventricular septum (suppurative myocarditis), and thrombi composed of fibrin, great numbers of neutrophils and bacteria, were found on the wall of the right atrioventricular valves (valvular endocarditis).


Figure 2
View larger version (68K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 2. Histopathological findings in the brains of mice with clinical signs of meningitis. A, Micrograph of a brain from an infected mouse at day 6 p.i. showing a blood vessel (bv) surrounded by a rim of neutrophils (n) with bacteria partially occluding the lumen (white arrowhead). Areas of malacia (m) are observed nearby. Hippocampus (hc). B, Micrograph of a brain from an infected mouse at day 9 p.i. showing complete destruction of the corpus callosum (cc). The normal tissue was replaced by numerous infiltrating neutrophils (black arrowhead). Some hemorrhagic foci are also observed (+). C, Micrograph of a brain from a mouse at day 9 p.i. showing the meninges (me) severely thickened and diffusely infiltrated by numerous macrophages and neutrophils (black arrowheads). H&E staining, x400 magnification. Bacterial loads in these mice ranged from 103 to 104 CFU/0.05 g of brain tissue.

 
Intraperitoneal infection with S. suis induces a rapid proinflammatory systemic response in mice

Results showed that the systemic cytokine and chemokine production in mice after infection with S. suis varied over time and among different cytokines. Production of proinflammatory TNF-{alpha}, one of the most important host mediators in the pathogenesis of septic shock, showed a high but transitory peak at 6 h p.i. and a drastic return to basal levels at 12 h p.i, regardless of the infection outcome (Fig. 3A). This rapid TNF-{alpha} production in plasma may indicate an important early participation of phagocytic cells during the onset of the inflammatory response against S. suis and the initiation of an amplification loop leading to the production of several other proinflammatory cytokines. Along with TNF-{alpha}, IL-6, and IL-12(p40/p70) were also rapidly induced. IL-6, an important inducer of acute phase proteins (33, 34), was expected to be elevated in the later phase of infection (35, 36) but, similar to TNF-{alpha}, its systemic levels were significantly high only during the first 12 h p.i., peaking at 97,000 pg/ml at 6 h p.i. (Fig. 3B). Th1-promoting IL-12, which mediates the transition to adaptive immunity, was also induced early after S. suis systemic infection. Levels of IL-12p40 in plasma increased abruptly and also returned rapidly to basal levels of noninfected controls as early as 6 h p.i. (Fig. 3C). Interestingly, IL-12p40 production preceded the appearance of biological IL-12p70 as suggested previously (37). Indeed, the pattern of IL-12p70 expression was similar to the aforementioned proinflammatory cytokines, peaking at 6 h p.i. and gradually returning to baseline by 30 h p.i. (Fig. 3D). In contrast, production of IFN-{gamma}, a critical Th1 cytokine, was rapidly induced at 6 h p.i., remained at high levels, and reached a plateau at 24 to 36 h p.i. (Fig. 3E). Surprisingly, IL-1beta, known to play an important role in inflammation (38), was induced only slightly after systemic S. suis infection (Fig. 3F). It should be noted that these cytokines were no longer detected at day 6 p.i. (data not shown).


Figure 3
View larger version (14K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 3. S. suis infection induces production of inflammatory mediators in a time-dependent manner. (A) TNF-{alpha}, (B) IL-6, (C) IL-12p40, (D) IL-12p70, (E) IFN-{gamma}, (F) IL-1beta, (G) CXCL1/KC, (H) CCL2/MCP-1, (I) CCL5/RANTES, and (J) IL-10. Cytokine concentrations were assayed by a liquid multiarray system (Luminex), as described in Materials and Methods. Data are expressed as mean ± SEM picograms per milliliter and are representative of two independent experiments. Time 0 h represents the mean (SEM) results from negative mice. Median bacterial loads in the blood of mice used for cytokine measurements are presented in Fig. 1A.

 
We also measured the production of the chemokines CXCL1 (KC), CCL2 (MCP-1), and CCL5 (RANTES) in mice infected with S. suis. Although CXCL8 (IL-8) has not been identified in the mouse, CXCL1 is one of the CXCL8 homologs believed to be important in the trafficking and activation of neutrophils in mice (39, 40). Levels of this key chemotactic factor were extremely high and rapidly induced, reaching peak production between 6 and 12 h p.i. and returning to baseline at day 3 p.i. (Fig. 3G). The expression of CCL2 (MCP-1), a prototypic inflammatory chemokine which mainly targets monocytes and T lymphocytes (40), was increased at 3 h p.i., peaking between 3 h and 24 h p.i, and gradually decreasing thereafter (Fig. 3H). Because very little is known regarding the role of CCL5 (RANTES), a highly potent chemoattractant for both monocytes and T cells (41), in Gram-positive systemic infections, we measured its production during the septicemic phase of S. suis infection in mice. Results showed that CCL5 was also induced as early as 3 h p.i., reaching maximal expression at 6 h p.i. and slowly diminishing to levels of noninfected mice at day 3 p.i. (Fig. 3I). No significant levels of any chemokines were observed after day 6 p.i. (data not shown).

We also assessed the expression of anti-inflammatory IL-10. In infected mice, IL-10 in plasma was apparent at 6 h p.i. and gradually increased to peak levels between 24 and 30 h p.i., with values >6000 pg/ml (Fig. 3J). Thereafter, it disappeared rapidly and was undetectable after day 6 p.i. (data not shown).

S. suis up-regulates the expression of genes encoding for several proinflammatory mediators at different structures of the brain

In situ hybridization was used to examine the spatiotemporal expression of different proinflammatory genes after i.p. infection of mice with S. suis at different p.i. time points (Table I). This technique was combined with immunohistochemistry to study the ability of microglia/macrophages and astrocytes to express diverse proinflammatory genes as described below.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		Table I. mRNA expression of different receptors and proinflammatory mediators in the brain of mice i.p. infected with S. suisa

 
Expression of TLR2, TLR3, and TLR4

A modest constitutive TLR2 hybridization signal (+/–) was observed at the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles in all vehicle-treated mice from 3 to 12 h p.i. In infected mice, transcriptional activation of the TLR2 gene was first detected at 24 h p.i. in the meninges as well as in different areas of the somatosensory cortex, striatum, the choroid plexus, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The spatiotemporal intensity of the hybridization signal varied from weak but positive (–/+ or +) at 24 h p.i. to moderate (++) at 3–4 days p.i. TLR2 mRNA expression was bilateral and in most cases symmetrical (Table I and data not shown). As the infection progressed, the signal became stronger, reaching peak expression at day 5 p.i. (+ to ++++, Fig. 4A). As depicted in Fig. 5A, TLR2 gene expression was particularly intense in the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and thalamus, coinciding with findings from histopathological studies also showing that similar structures were the most affected. Such a robust signal in small-scattered cells indicated that microglia/macrophages were probably the type of cells expressing this innate immune receptor (Fig. 6A). TLR2 hybridization signal was also present in cells lining the endothelium of the brain capillaries (Fig. 6A). Participation of microglia/macrophages was confirmed by dual labeling (TLR2 mRNA in iba1-immunoreactive cells). These data provide evidence that systemic S. suis infection activates transcription of TLR2 of either resident or blood-derived microglia (Fig. 7A). The TLR2 signal started to diminish after day 9 p.i., returning to basal levels of control mice at day 14 p.i. (Table I).


Figure 4
View larger version (20K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 4. Coronal sections showing the in situ hybridization results from S. suis-infected mice and noninfected (negative) controls. The dark-field microphotographs of nuclear emulsion-dipped coronal sections show the spatial expression of TLR2 (A), CD14 (B), I{kappa}B{alpha} (C), and CCL2/MCP-1 (D) mRNA at day 5 p.i. The positive hybridization signal appears as an agglomeration of silver grains in specific structures of the brain, such as the hippocampus (hc), corpus callosum (cc), thalamus (th), and meninges (me).

 

Figure 5
View larger version (53K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 5. S. suis is able to induce strong transcriptional activation of genes encoding TLR2 (A), CD14 (B), I{kappa}B{alpha} (C), and CCL2/MCP-1 (D) in various structures of the brain. These dark-field microphotographs are magnifications of coronal sections depicted by Fig. 4 and are representative examples of the expression patterns of the different transcripts in the hippocampus (hc), corpus callosum (cc), and blood vessels (bv) at day 5 p.i.

 

Figure 6
View larger version (81K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 6. S. suis infection induces transcriptional activation of genes encoding proinflammatory molecules in the brain and blood vessels (bv) of mice. The dark-field photomicrographs of nuclear emulsion-dipped coronal sections from infected mice at day 5 p.i. show the presence of positive hybridization signal in parenchymal cells and also in cells lining the endothelium of the brain capillaries, as clearly indicated by corresponding bright-field photomicrographs. Hybridization signals are depicted for TLR2 (A), CD14 (B), I{kappa}B{alpha} (C), and CCL2/MCP-1 (D) transcripts.

 

Figure 7
View larger version (80K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 7. Combined immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization labeling suggests a key role of microglia/macrophages in the inflammatory response provoked by i.p. S. suis infection in mice. Microglial cells were labeled with an Ab against ionized-binding adapter molecule 1 (iba1) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) antisera was used to stain astrocytes (brown cell bodies and ramifications). In situ hybridization was thereafter performed for TLR2, I{kappa}B{alpha}, or CCL2/MCP-1 mRNA (silver grains). All microphotographs are representative of infected mice at day 5 p.i. The presence of mRNA encoding either TLR2 (A) or CCL2/MCP-1 (C) within parenchymal microglia appears as an agglomeration of silver grains inside the cell cytoplasm (black arrowheads). Few positive astrocytes for I{kappa}B{alpha} (B) and CCL2/MCP-1 (D) transcripts were also detected.

 
It is notable that S. suis was able to induce the transcriptional activation of TLR3, which was not expressed constitutively in noninfected mice. Although TLR3 signal was generally weaker in comparison with the expression of other genes studied here, it followed a pattern of expression similar to TLR2 (Table I). In infected animals, a weak positive (–/+) TLR3 hybridization signal was detected at 24 h p.i., mainly in the choroid plexus of the lateral ventricles as well as the thalamus and hypothalamus. Peak TLR3 hybridization signal (+ to ++) in mice with clinical signs of cerebral inflammation was observed between days 5 and 7 p.i. The brains of these animals showed a weak to moderate scattered pattern of TLR3 at the cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, choroid plexus of lateral ventricles, hippocampus, and corpus callosum. In contrast to TLR2, TLR3 expression was not observed in the meninges. From day 9 p.i., the expression of TLR3 decreased to normal levels (Table I). Finally, TLR4 hybridization signal was not detected in any group at any time during the experiment (data not shown). Previous studies showed that the TLR4 probe accurately recognizes its target gene (42) and is therefore not induced in the brain of S. suis-infected mice.

Expression of CD14

In contrast to constitutive expression that was nearly undetectable, S. suis-infected mice showed spatiotemporal expression of CD14 at levels similar to some degree as other proinflammatory transcripts (Table I). A modest positive bilateral signal was observed as early as 3 h p.i. (–/+) and peaked at day 5 p.i. (+ to ++). At this time point, CD14 expression was detected in the corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and meninges (Fig. 4B). In the corpus callosum, CD14 signal was lower compared with that of TLR2 (Fig. 5B), although it could be detected in the cells of blood vessels (Figs. 5B and 6B). In contrast to TLR2 and TLR3, expression of this receptor was weaker in the choroid plexus, cortex, and hippocampus.

Expression of I{kappa}B{alpha}

Basal expression (+/–) of I{kappa}B{alpha}, an indirect marker of NF-{kappa}B activity, was found mainly in the choroid plexus. In S. suis-infected mice, however, the signal increased in this structure at 3 h p.i. and reached maximal expression levels at day 5 p.i. (+ to +++, Fig. 4C and Table I). I{kappa}B{alpha} distribution resembled that of TLR2, especially in the corpus callosum, hippocampus, and hypothalamus (Fig. 5C). The message was also found in the cortex, thalamus, and meninges (Fig. 4C and Table I), as well as in blood vessels (Figs. 5C and 6C). I{kappa}B{alpha} mRNA was detected in both myeloid cells (data not shown) and astrocytes (Fig. 7B). Following peak expression, the signal gradually decreased to basal levels by 14 days p.i. (data not shown).

Expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the brain

There was no constitutive expression of TNF-{alpha}, IL-1beta, IL-6, and CCL2 (MCP-1) in brains of control mice. However, the expression levels of these immune mediators were up-regulated to different extents in the brain of S. suis-infected mice (Table I). IL-1beta was detected in the choroid plexus and cortex as early as 24 h p.i. and gradually increased by day 5 p.i. in mice that exhibited clinical signs. At this time point, IL-1beta signal was clear in the choroid plexus, cortex, corpus callosum, and meninges (++) (Table I). In contrast, IL-6 gene expression was found in the CNS of only a few mice and it was not considered significant (Table I). It should be noted that we previously demonstrated that this IL-6 probe hybridizes IL-6 in the brain of LPS-treated mice (43). For TNF-{alpha}, a weak (+) mRNA expression appeared at 24 h p.i. in the corpus callosum. At day 5 p.i., TNF-{alpha} signal increased and was confined to the entire corpus callosum and the choroid plexus, while other brain structures and blood vessels failed to express TNF-{alpha} (Table I).

A weak positive (–/+) signal for CCL2 (MCP-1) was observed in the choroid plexus at 3 h p.i. One day following inoculation, the signal intensified (+ to ++) in the cortex, choroid plexus, hippocampus, thalamus, corpus callosum, and meninges (Table I). Similar to other transcripts, CCL2 expression levels peaked by day 5 p.i. (Figs. 4D and 5D). Given the particularly widespread and strong levels of expression of this chemokine, we also evaluated the participation of microglia and astrocytes in its production. Dual labeling provided anatomical evidence that cells expressing the CCL2 transcript were mainly of the microglia/macrophage subset (Fig. 7C), although a modest participation of astrocytes was also observed (Fig. 7D). Strong expression of CCL2 mRNA was also observed in cells lining the endothelium of the brain capillaries (Fig. 6D). CCL2 expression decreased considerably after day 5 p.i. and was similar to control mice at day 14 p.i.

Presence of S. suis in different anatomical sites as detected by immunohistochemistry

S. suis Ags were detected by immunohistochemistry in different structures of the brain in mice showing nervous clinical signs. No antigenic labeling was observed in control mice (Fig. 8, A and B). Although S. suis Ags were observed in different areas of the brain, their presence was more striking at the corpus callosum and cerebral cortex, where histopathological lesions and expression of inflammatory mediators were observed (Fig. 8, C and D). Interestingly, both Nissl and H&E staining indicated degeneration of the corpus collosum of infected mice (Fig. 2B and 8D). The presence of S. suis Ags was largely associated with large, elongated cells with oval nuclei that had morphological characteristics compatible with macrophages (Fig. 8E).


Figure 8
View larger version (56K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 8. S. suis Ags were labeled by immunoperoxidase using a polyclonal antiserum. A and B, Nissl-stained coronal section from a control mouse showing the absence of bacterial Ags or tissue degeneration. C, Representative section of an infected mouse at day 5 p.i. showing the bilateral localization of S. suis Ags in the brain. D, Localization of S. suis Ags occurred in specific areas of the brain parenchyma, mainly the cortex (co) and corpus callosum (cc). E, S. suis Ags were largely found in associated with cells with morphological resemblance to macrophages/microglia. Nissl staining revealed areas of corpus collosum degeneration (C and D) as indicated by black arrowheads.

 
The inflammatory response to S. suis provokes demyelination

PLP, synthesized by oligodendrocytes, is the most abundant protein of CNS myelin (44). As the infection progressed, the inflammatory response to S. suis correlated with a decrease in the expression of PLP mRNA in specific areas of the brain, indicating demyelination. At day 5 p.i., this loss in myelin content was observed in the corpus callosum (Fig. 9, D–F), whereas vehicle-treated mice did not exhibit any significant changes in PLP mRNA expression (Fig. 9, A–C). To confirm the loss of myelin, brain sections were stained with SBB. Although control mice showed no alterations (Fig. 9, G–I), histological examination of infected mice revealed an acute loss of myelin staining (Fig. 9, J and K). As observed with the PLP mRNA probe, this loss of myelin was restricted to the corpus callosum (Fig. 9L).


Figure 9
View larger version (63K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]

  		FIGURE 9. PLP transcript expression was diminished in the brain of S. suis-infected mice. A–C, Brain sections from control mice showing normal levels of PLP expression. D–F, Brain sections of infected mice at day 5 p.i. showing the reduced expression of PLP mRNA, mainly in the corpus callosum (cc). In E and F, the regions with a decreased level of PLP transcript in the corpus callosum are indicated by white arrowheads. Please note that PLP mRNA expression levels remain similar to control mice in other areas of the brain. G–I, SBB-stained brain sections from control mice showing absence of histological changes. The presence of myelin in the (cc) is apparent. J–L, SBB-stained brain sections of infected mice at day 5 p.i. showing a clear and localized loss of myelin at the level of the corpus callosum (cc). In K and L, the localized demyelination in the (cc) is indicated by black arrowheads.

 

   Discussion
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
Disclosures
 References
 
To successfully induce meningitis, a pathogen must be able to invade and survive in the intravascular space, cross the BBB, survive and multiply in the cerebrospinal fluid and then cause damage to the CNS (45). Different animal models have been used to study infections caused by meningeal bacterial pathogens, specifically the pathogenesis of meningitis, the host immune response induced after infection, and the efficacy of novel drugs and vaccines. Most models use infant animals because adult animals do not reliably develop brain pathology after intranasal, i.v. or i.p. challenge with live microorganisms (45). In addition, models using i.v. or i.p. challenges in adult animals typically result in bacteremia and septicemia, leading sometimes to rapid death of infected animals with modest, if any, brain pathology. Experimental infections leading to meningitis are usually performed by direct inoculation of the pathogen into the cerebrospinal fluid or by direct intracerebral instillation (46, 47). However, this model bypasses several steps, such as bacterial dissemination and increased permeability of the BBB, which is the natural portal of entry into the CNS for most meningeal pathogens. In the present study, we used a CD1 mouse model of S. suis infection to study the two phases of disease: an early septic shock-like syndrome leading to death and a second late phase that induces evident brain damage. Using this model, we consistently reproduced clinical signs of affected nervous system and damage to the CNS in adult animals by means of a hematogenous infection with a Gram-positive bacterial pathogen. Interestingly, CD1 mice appear to be specifically and consistently susceptible to CNS infections by S. suis, although this pathogen does not induce clinical signs of meningitis in other mouse strains (BALB/c, C57BL/6 and A/J) tested (our unpublished observations). The i.p. route may confer certain advantages compared with direct inoculation into the CNS. First, the technique causes minimal trauma and anesthesia is not required. Second, it better represents the natural route of infection because most pathogenic bacteria cause bacteremia before reaching the CNS via mechanisms that are only partially understood.

In the model used in the present study, a virulent S. suis strain caused 20% mortality within 48 h p.i. The number of CFU in the blood, liver and spleen was routinely high in all infected mice until day 3 p.i, although the presence of high levels of bacteremia was not always fatal. Variable numbers of bacteria were found in the brain, indicating a pattern of S. suis colonization that is unique to this organ. Surprisingly, >100 CFU/sample were found in the brain of some mice after 6–9 days p.i. in the absence of clinical signs; however, animals were sacrificed at specified time points in our kinetics study and therefore it is not known whether these mice would have developed nervous disease at a later time.

The use of a multiplex system in this study allowed us to quantitatively measure the kinetics of several cytokines simultaneously in a small volume of plasma. High levels of TNF-{alpha}, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-{gamma}, CCL2 (MCP-1), CXCL1 (KC), and CCL5 (RANTES) were observed in vivo within 24 h p.i. and might be responsible in part for the sudden death of 20% of animals. In fact, the presence of high numbers of bacteria and the lack of specific lesions in mice that died during the first 24–48 h suggest that the exacerbated inflammatory response might be the cause of death. It is not clear why some animals succumbed while others survived this acute phase. A general analysis of cytokine patterns suggests that infection with S. suis serotype 2 induces a Th1-type immune response. TNF-{alpha}, the first cytokine observed in the systemic inflammatory cascade following S. suis infection, has been previously implicated in the pathogenesis of Gram-positive septic shock-like syndrome (36, 48). It is important to note the remarkably high levels of IL-6 production in S. suis-infected mice. Indeed, high levels of both TNF-{alpha} and IL-6 correlate inversely with survival time in patients with sepsis (49). Previous studies of mice infected with Streptococcus pneumoniae, group A or group B streptococci have reported elevated IL-6 in plasma, albeit at lower levels than those found here (48, 50). Likewise, IFN-{gamma} contributes to the immune control of invading pathogens but also may cause pathology leading to death when its production is excessive or uncontrolled (50). It has been shown that high levels of IL-12 produced early during group A streptococci infection, as those observed in this study with S. suis, may influence NK cells and others to produce IFN-{gamma}, suggesting a positive feedback regulation in the proinflammatory cytokine cascade (50, 51). Levels of IL-1beta were not as high as those observed for other type 1 cytokines; however, this finding does not necessarily preclude a causative role for IL-1beta in S. suis disease, as already suggested for other pathogens (52). As for the chemokines, high levels of CXCL1 (KC) and CCL2 (MCP-1) were detected during the first 36 h p.i. in the sepsis phase of infection, and their presence in plasma lasted longer than most of the proinflammatory cytokines tested. Although there are very few studies on the activity of CCL5 (RANTES) in sepsis (39), it has been shown that its levels in plasma during meningococcal disease show a different pattern than those of other chemokines (53). However, in our study, CCL5 followed a pattern similar to other chemokines. It has been shown that different meningitis-causing bacteria induce distinct inflammatory responses, including either high or low levels of CCL5 following interaction with cells of the human meninges (54). Finally, the relatively delayed IL-10 up-regulation might indicate a negative feedback mechanism to control the extent of the inflammatory response, as described in experimental pneumococcal meningitis (55). Given that numbers of viable bacteria remained constant during the first 3 days p.i., IL-10 production did not appear to influence bacterial clearance from the blood or various organs and instead likely contributed to mouse survival by preventing immunopathology associated with excessive proinflammatory cytokines.

We showed that most S. suis-infected mice that survive septicemia later developed CNS clinical signs such as locomotion problems, episthotonus, opisthotonus, bending of the head laterally and walking in circles, which could be considered characteristic of brain inflammation. S. suis infection clearly induced inflammation and suppurative and necrotizing lesions in specific anatomical sites of the brain parenchyma, such as the meninges, cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and corpus callosum. In addition, a strong activation of TLR2 in the same regions of the brain parenchyma was observed several days after the presence of S. suis bacteremia. Previous studies showed that mice systemically inoculated with peptidoglycan (PGN), lipoteichoic acid (LTA), or a combination of both fail to modulate TLR2 expression in the CNS (27). However, intracisternal injection of live or killed S. pneumoniae, PGN, and LTA triggers an immune reaction via TLR2 (56). These conflicting results may reflect different routes of inoculation. We hypothesize that local multiplication of S. suis, which might expose or release high amounts of PGN, LTA, and other surface components, might be responsible for TLR2 up-regulation. The role of this receptor in protective immunity and immunopathology in Gram-positive meningitis is controversial (57). Indeed, it has been demonstrated that TLR2 plays a dual role in group B streptococci infection depending on the bacterial dose, that is, it has a protective role at low doses but exerts detrimental effects, such as causing septic shock-like syndrome, at high doses (48).

In our model, results show that TLR2 activation coincided with up-regulated expression of CD14 receptor and activation of I{kappa}B{alpha} (index of NF-{kappa}B activation), IL-1beta, TNF-{alpha}, and MCP-1 in similar anatomical regions among mice with CNS symptoms. However, it is not possible to ascertain that the increased mRNA expression of inflammatory mediators was directly related to TLR2 signaling pathway. In fact, there was also a moderate induction of TLR3 mRNA expression which followed a pattern similar to TLR2. Thus, we cannot rule out the possibility that S. suis can activate other TLRs besides TLR2 and possibly other components of the innate immune system, as previously reported by our in vitro studies (18, 21). In agreement with these findings, mice with S. pneumoniae-induced meningitis have increased TLR2, TLR4, and TLR9 mRNA expression while hippocampal cultures exposed to the same bacteria also trigger up-regulated TLR2 and TLR3 mRNA expression. In addition, TLR2-deficient mice infected intracraneally with S. pneumoniae express different proinflammatory cytokines in the CNS, indicating TLR2-independent recognition pathways (56, 58, 59). Finally, we confirmed previous data that support no involvement of TLR4 in this response (21). The pneumolysin of S. pneumoniae was reported to activate TLR4 (60). Although S. suis produces a toxin, named suilysin, with high homology to pneumolysin (6), it appears that these two toxins do not engage the same activation pathways. It should be noted that no correlation could be established between positive in situ hybridization signals and bacterial loads in the brain. In fact, the technique requires perfusion of mice with PFA and such a treatment does not allow further sampling for other types of studies, such as bacteriology. However, results from immunohistochemistry showed the presence of high loads of bacterial Ags in association with cells which morphologically resembled microglia residing only in the affected zones, indicating a high concentration of bacteria in these regions.

Transcriptional activation of cytokine mRNA in the CNS at a time coincident with the presence of clinical signs may indicate an important role of inflammation in the development of S. suis-related meningitis. Based largely on in vitro data, it has been suggested that cerebrospinal fluid cytokines are secreted predominantly by microglia or astrocytes within the brain parenchyma (61). In this study, we showed that, in general, microglia/macrophage (or infiltrating monocyte) cells and, to a lesser extent, astrocytes were activated and these cell types were probably the cellular sources of cytokine induction in the brain parenchyma. This hypothesis is supported by the strong transcriptional activation of NF-{kappa}B and MCP-1 mRNA in these cells. Infiltrating monocytes would contribute not only to in situ inflammation but also to bacterial infiltration into the CNS given that monocytes carry externally associated bacteria, as suggested by the "modified Trojan Horse" theory for S. suis invasion of the CNS (6). Finally, endothelial and ependymal cells might also play a supporting role in inducing inflammation in the CNS (61).

S. suis does not appear to induce the expression of proinflammatory mediators in leaky areas of the brain (regions excluding the BBB) and does not affect the so-called circumventricular organs, as previously reported for LPS (22, 27, 62, 63). Indeed, microscopic analysis of brain sections showed that cells expressing transcripts for TLR2, CD14, I{kappa}B{alpha}, and CCL2 (MCP-1) were associated with microvascular vessels early after infection, suggesting that endothelial cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of S. suis-related meningitis. Furthermore, previous in vitro reports from our laboratory show that the BBB may be the portal of entry for the bacteria into the brain (9, 25) and that BMEC might also contribute to the initiation of inflammatory process by producing, among others, IL-6, CXCL8 (IL-8), and CCL2 after contact with S. suis (15). Interestingly, these in vitro studies showed an absence of TNF-{alpha} and IL-1beta activation in S. suis-infected BMEC (15), a finding that is consistent with the lack of a positive transcription signal for these cytokines in microvascular vessels as demonstrated here and in other studies (64). In this study, shortly after infection, TLR2 and CD14 mRNA up-regulation was observed in cells lining the brain microvasculature. Although data are limited, TLR2 expression in brain endothelial cells has been reported (64) while endothelial cell expression of CD14 is controversial (65, 66, 67). In contrast, both TLR2 and CD14 may be induced in perivascular microglia and monocytes, which participate in many inflammatory events in the CNS (68, 69). Finally, it has also been suggested that S. suis, which can affect the viability of porcine choroid plexus epithelial cells, may also invade the CNS through the choroid plexus (10). In agreement with this hypothesis, the present study showed robust and rapid expression of TLR2, TLR3, CD14, I{kappa}B{alpha}, IL-1beta, TNF-{alpha}, and CCL2 (MCP-1) in the choroid plexus early after S. suis infection.

In conclusion, results obtained in the present study provide important insights into the mechanisms underlying the innate immune response against the infection caused by S. suis at both systemic and CNS-specific levels. This is the first report of a hematogenous infection model that consistently reproduces clinical signs of an affected nervous system and damage to the CNS in adult animals with a bacterial pathogen. The adult model of CNS infection developed in this study may be useful to further study mechanisms involved in bacterial invasion of the CNS and brain inflammation caused by Gram-positive bacteria.


   Acknowledgments
 
We are grateful to Natalie Laflamme (Centre Hospitalier de l’Université Laval, St.-Foy, Québec, Canada) and Claude Lachance (McGill University Health Centre Research Institute, Montreal, Québec, Canada) for technical support.


   Disclosures
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
References
 
The authors have no financial conflict of interest.


   Footnotes
 
The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact.

1 This work was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Grant 0680154280, Canadian Institutes of Health Research (to S.R.), and Centre de recherche en infectiologie porcine (Fonds québécois de la recherche sur la nature et les technologies). Back

2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Marcelo Gottschalk, Groupe de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses du Porc, Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, 3200 rue Sicotte, St.-Hyacinthe, Québec, J2S 2M2, Canada. E-mail address: marcelo.gottschalk{at}umontreal.ca Back

3 Abbreviations used in this paper: BMEC, brain microvascular endothelial cell; BBB, blood brain barrier; THB, Todd-Hewitt broth; p.i., postinfection; PFA, paraformaldehyde; DEPC, diethylpyrocarbonate; PLP, proteolipid protein; KPBS, potassium-PBS; DAB, 3,3'-diaminobenzidine; SBB, Sudan black B staining; PGN, peptidoglycan; LTA, lipoteichoic acid. Back

4 The online version of this article contains supplemental material. Back

Received for publication January 23, 2007. Accepted for publication May 22, 2007.


   References
Top
 Abstract
 Introduction
 Materials and Methods
 Results
 Discussion
 Disclosures
 References
 

  1. Higgins, R., M. Gottschalk. 2005. Diseases of swine. B. Straw, and J. J. Zimmerman, and S. D’Allaire, and D. J. Taylor, eds. Streptococcal diseases 9 Ed.769-783. Iowa State University Press, Ames.
  2. Dupas, D., M. Vignon, C. Geraut. 1992. Streptococcus suis meningitis: a severe noncompensated occupational disease. J. Occup. Med. 34: 1102-1105. [Medline]
  3. Madsen, L. W., B. Svensmark, K. Elvestad, B. Aalbaek, H. E. Jensen. 2002. Streptococcus suis serotype 2 infection in pigs: new diagnostic and pathogenetic aspects. J. Comp. Pathol. 126: 57-65. [Medline]
  4. Yen, M. Y., Y. C. Liu, J. H. Wang, Y. S. Chen, Y. H. Wang, D. L. Cheng. 1994. Streptococcus suis meningitis complicated with permanent perceptive deafness: report of a case. J. Formos. Med. Assoc. 93: 349-351. [Medline]
  5. Ye, C., X. Zhu, H. Jing, H. Du, M. Segura, H. Zheng, B. Kan, L. Wang, X. Bai, Y. Zhou, et al 2006. Streptococcus suis sequence type 7 outbreak, Sichuan, China. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 12: 1203-1208. [Medline]
  6. Segura, M., M. Gottschalk. 2004. Extracellular virulence factors of streptococci associated with animal diseases. Front. Biosci. 9: 1157-1188. [Medline]
  7. Baums, C. G., U. Kaim, M. Fulde, G. Ramachandran, R. Goethe, P. Valentin-Weigand. 2006. Identification of a novel virulence determinant with serum opacification activity in Streptococcus suis. Infect. Immun. 74: 6154-6162. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Madsen, L. W., H. Bak, B. Nielsen, H. E. Jensen, B. Aalbaek, J. H. Riising. 2002. Bacterial colonization and invasion in pigs experimentally exposed to Streptococcus suis serotype 2 in aerosol. J. Vet. Med. B. 49: 211-215.
  9. Gottschalk, M., M. Segura. 2000. The pathogenesis of the meningitis caused by Streptococcus suis: the unresolved questions. Vet. Microbiol. 76: 259-272. [Medline]
  10. Tenenbaum, T., R. Adam, I. Eggelnpohler, D. Malaton, A. Seibt, G. E. Novotny, H. J. Galla, H. Schroten. 2005. Strain-dependent disruption of blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier by Streptoccocus suis in vitro. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 44: 25-34. [Medline]
  11. Rubin, L. L., J. M. Staddon. 1999. The cell biology of the blood-brain barrier. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22: 11-28. [Medline]
  12. Huang, S. H., M. F. Stins, K. S. Kim. 2000. Bacterial penetration across the blood-brain barrier during the development of neonatal meningitis. Microbes Infect. 2: 1237-1244. [Medline]
  13. Koedel, U., W. M. Scheld, H. W. Pfister. 2002. Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of pneumococcal meningitis. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2: 721-736. [Medline]
  14. Jobin, M. C., J. Fortin, P. J. Willson, M. Gottschalk, D. Grenier. 2005. Acquisition of plasmin activity and induction of arachidonic acid release by Streptococcus suis in contact with human brain microvascular endothelial cells. FEMS Microb. Lett. 252: 105-111. [Medline]
  15. Vadeboncoeur, N., M. Segura, M. Doré, M. Gottschalk. 2003. Pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine release by human brain microvascular endothelial cells stimulated by Streptococcus suis serotype 2. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 35: 49-58. [Medline]
  16. Jobin, M. C., M. Gottschalk, D. Grenier. 2006. Upregulation of prostaglandin E2 and matrix metalloproteinase 9 production by human macrophage-like cells: synergistic effect of capsular material and cell wall from Streptococcus suis. Microb. Pathog. 40: 29-34. [Medline]
  17. Segura, M., J. Stankova, M. Gottschalk. 1999. Heat-killed Streptococcus suis capsular type 2 strains stimulate tumor necrosis factor {alpha} and interleukin-6 production by murine macrophages. Infect. Immun. 67: 4646-4654. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  18. Segura, M., N. Vadeboncoeur, M. Gottschalk. 2002. CD14-dependent and -independent cytokine and chemokine production by human THP-1 monocytes stimulated by Streptococcus suis capsular type 2. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 127: 243-254. [Medline]
  19. Segura, M., G. Vanier, D. Al-Numani, S. Lacouture, M. Olivier, M. Gottschalk. 2006. Proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine modulation by Streptococcus suis in a whole-blood culture system. FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 47: 92-106. [Medline]
  20. Al-Numani, D., M. Segura, M. Doré, M. Gottschalk. 2003. Up-regulation of ICAM-1, CD11a/CD18 and CD11c/CD18 on human THP-1 monocytes stimulated by Streptococcus suis serotype 2. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 133: 67-77. [Medline]
  21. Graveline, R., M. Segura, D. Radzioch, M. Gottschalk. 2007. TLR2-dependent recognition of Streptococcus suis is modulated by the presence of capsular polysaccharide which modifies macrophage responsiveness. Int. Immunol. 19: 375-389. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Nguyen, M. D., J. P. Julien, S. Rivest. 2002. Innate immunity: the missing link in neuroprotection and neurodegeneration?. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 3: 216-227. [Medline]
  23. Olson, J. K., S. D. Miller. 2004. Microglia initiate central nervous system innate and adaptive immune responses through multiple TLRs. J. Immunol. 173: 3916-3924. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  24. Jack, C. S., N. Arbour, J. Manusow, V. Montgrain, M. Blai, E. McCrea, A. Shapiro, J. P. Antel. 2005. TLR signaling tailors innate immune responses in human microglia and astrocytes. J. Immunol. 175: 4320-4330. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Vanier, G., M. Segura, P. Friedl, S. Lacouture, M. Gottschalk. 2004. Invasion of porcine brain microvascular endothelial cells by Streptococcus suis serotype 2. Infect. Immun. 72: 1441-1449. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  26. Higgins, R., M. Gottschalk. 1990. An update on Streptococcus suis identification. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 2: 249-252. [Free Full Text]
  27. Laflamme, N., G. Soucy, S. Rivest. 2001. Circulating cell wall components derived from Gram-negative, not Gram-positive, bacteria cause a profound induction of the gene-encoding Toll-like receptor 2 in the CNS. J. Neurochem. 79: 648-657. [Medline]
  28. Laflamme, N., H. Echchannaoui, R. Landmann, S. Rivest. 2003. Cooperation between Toll-like receptor 2 and 4 in the brain of mice challenged with cell wall components derived from Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Eur. J. Immunol. 33: 1127-1138. [Medline]
  29. Glezer, I., A. Lapointe, S. Rivest. 2006. Innate immunity triggers oligodendrocyte progenitor reactivity and confines damages to brain injuries. FASEB J. 20: 750-752. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  30. Paxinos, G., K. B. J. Franklin. 2001. The Mouse Brain in Stereotaxic Coordinates Academic Press, San Diego.
  31. Vallieres, L., S. Rivest. 1999. Interleukin-6 is a needed proinflammatory cytokine in the prolonged neural activity and transcriptional activation of corticotropin-releasing factor during endotoxemia. Endocrinology 140: 3890-3903. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Babcock, A. A., W. A. Kuziel, S. Rivest, T. Owens. 2003. Chemokine expression by glial cells directs leukocytes to sites of axonal injury in the CNS. J. Neurosci. 23: 7922-7930. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  33. Song, M., J. A. Kellum. 2005. Interleukin-6. Crit. Care Med. 33: (Suppl.):S463-S465. [Medline]
  34. Dofferhoff, A. S., E. Vellenga, P. C. Limburg, A. van Zanten, P. O. Mulder, J. Weits. 1991. Tumour necrosis factor (cachectin) and other cytokines in septic shock: a review of the literature. Neth. J. Med. 39: 45-62. [Medline]
  35. Ebong, S., D. Call, J. Nemzek, G. Bolgos, D. Newcomb, D. Remick. 1999. Immunopathologic alterations in murine models of sepsis of increasing severity. Infect. Immun. 67: 6603-6610. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  36. Teti, G., G. Mancuso, F. Tomasello. 1993. Cytokine appearance and effects of anti-tumor necrosis factor {alpha} antibodies in a neonatal rat model of group B streptococcal infection. Infect. Immun. 61: 227-235. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  37. Abdi, K.. 2002. IL-12: the role of p40 versus p75. Scand. J. Immunol. 56: 1-11. [Medline]
  38. Allan, S. M., P. J. Tyrrell, N. J. Rothwell. 2005. Interleukin-1 and neuronal injury. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 5: 629-640. [Medline]
  39. Ley, C.. 2003. Arrest cytokines. Microcirculation 10: 289-295. [Medline]
  40. Bagglioni, M.. 2001. Chemokines in pathology and medicine. J. Intern. Med. 250: 91-104. [Medline]
  41. Schall, T. J., K. Bacon, K. J. Toy, D. V. Goeddel. 1990. Selective attraction of monocytes and T lymphocytes of the memory phenotype by cytokine RANTES. Nature 347: 669-671. [Medline]
  42. Sergerie, Y., G. Boivin, D. Gosselin, S. Rivest. 2007. Delayed but not early glucocorticoid treatment protects the host during experimental herpes simplex virus encephalitis in mice. J. Infect. Dis. 195: 817-825. [Medline]
  43. Brochu, S., M. Olivier, S. Rivest. 1999. Neuronal activity and transcription of proinflammatory cytokines, I{kappa}B{alpha}, and iNOS in the mouse brain during acute endotoxemia and chronic infection with Trypanosoma brucei brucei. J. Neurosci. Res. 57: 801-816. [Medline]
  44. Greer, J. M., M. B. Less. 2002. Myelin proteolipid protein- the first 50 years. Int. J. Biochem. Cell. Biol. 34: 211-215. [Medline]
  45. Koedel, U., H. W. Pfister. 1999. Models of experimental bacterial meningitis: role and limitations. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 13: 549-577. [Medline]
  46. Gerber, J., G. Raivich, A. Wellmer, C. Noeske, T. Kunst, W. Bruck, R. Nau. 2001. A mouse model of Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis mimicking several features of human disease. Acta Neuropathol. 101: 499-508. [Medline]
  47. Chiavolini, D., S. Tripodi, R. Parigi, M. R. Ogglioni, E. Blasi, M. Cintorino, G. Pozzi, S. Ricci. 2004. Method for inducing experimental pneumococcal meningitis in outbred mice. BMC Microbiol. 4: 36-45. [Medline]
  48. Mancuso, G., A. Midiri, C. Beninati, C. Biondo, R. Galbo, S. Akira, P. Henneke, D. Golenbock, G. Teti. 2004. Dual role of TLR2 and myeloid differentiation factor 88 in a mouse model of invasive group B streptococcal disease. J. Immunol. 172: 6324-6329. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  49. Norrby-Teglund, A., K. Pauksens, M. Norgren, S. E. Holm. 1995. Correlation between serum TNF {alpha} and IL6 levels and severity of group A streptococcal infections. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 27: 125-130. [Medline]
  50. Goldmann, O., G. S. Chhatwal, E. Medina. 2005. Contribution of natural killer cells to the pathogenesis of septic shock induced by Streptococcus pyogenes in mice. J. Infect. Dis. 191: 1280-1286. [Medline]
  51. Raeder, R. H., L. Barker-Merrill, T. Lester, D. Boyle, D. W. Metzger. 2000. A pivotal role for interferon-{gamma} in protection against group A streptococcal skin infection. J. Infect. Dis. 181: 639-645. [Medline]
  52. Dinarello, C. A.. 2005. Interleukin-1beta. Crit. Care Med. 33: S460-S462. [Medline]
  53. Moller, A. S., A. Bjerre, B. Brusletto, G. B. Joo, P. Brandtzaeg, P. Kierulf. 2005. Chemokine patterns in meningococcal disease. J. Infect. Dis. 191: 768-775. [Medline]
  54. Fowler, M. I., R. O. Weller, J. E. Heckels, M. Christodoulides. 2004. Different meningitis-causing bacteria induce distinct inflammatory responses on interaction with cells of the human meninges. Cell Microbiol. 6: 555-567. [Medline]
  55. Koedel, U., A. Bernatowicz, K. Frei, A. Fontana, H. W. Pfister. 1996. Systemically (but not intrathecally) administered IL-10 attenuates pathophysiologic alterations in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Immunol. 157: 5185-5191. [Abstract]
  56. Koedel, U., B. Angele, T. Rupprecht, H. Wagner, A. Roggenkamp, H. W. Pfister, C. J. Kirschning. 2003. Toll-like receptor 2 participates in mediation of immune response in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Immunol. 170: 438-444. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  57. Echchannaoui, H., K. Frei, C. Schnell, S. L. Leib, W. Zimmerli, R. Landmann. 2002. Toll-like receptor 2-deficient mice are highly susceptible to Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis because of reduced bacterial clearing and enhanced inflammation. J. Infect. Dis. 186: 798-806. [Medline]
  58. Bottcher, T., M. v. Mering, S. Ebert, U. Mayding-Lamade, U. Kuhnt, J. Gerber, R. Nau. 2003. Differential regulation of Toll-like receptor mRNAs in experimental murine central nervous system infections. Neurosci. Lett. 344: 17-20. [Medline]
  59. Letiembre, M., H. Echchannaoui, P. Bachmann, F. Ferracin, C. Nieto, M. Espinosa, R. Landmann. 2005. Toll-like receptor 2 deficiency delays pneumococcal phagocytosis and impairs oxidative killing by granulocytes. Infect. Immun. 73: 8397-8401. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  60. Malley, R., P. Henneke, S. C. Morse, M. J. Cieslewicz, M. Lipsitch, C. M. Thompson, E. Kurt-Jones, J. C. Paten, M. R. Wessels, D. T. Golenbock. 2003. Recognition of pneumolysin by Toll-like receptor 4 confers resistance to pneumococcal infection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100: 1966-1971. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  61. Kim, Y. S., J. Honkaniemi, F. R. Sharp, M. G. Tauber. 2004. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-{alpha} and interleukin-1beta in the brain during experimental group B streptococcal meningitis. Mol. Brain Res. 128: 95-102. [Medline]
  62. Laflamme, N., S. Rivest. 2001. Toll-like receptor 4: the missing link of the cerebral innate immune response triggered by circulating gram-negative bacterial cell wall components. FASEB J. 15: 155-163. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  63. Rivest, S.. 2003. Molecular insights on the cerebral innate immune system. Brain Behav. Immun. 17: 13-19. [Medline]
  64. Constantin, D., A. Cordenier, K. Robinson, D. A. Ala’Aldeen, S. Murphy. 2004. Neisseria meningitidis-induced death of cerebrovascular endothelium: mechanisms triggering transcriptional activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase. J. Neurochem. 89: 1166-1174. [Medline]
  65. Jermann, H., C. Hii, G. Hodge, A. Ferrante. 2001. Synthesis and surface expression of CD14 by human endothelial cells. Infect. Immun. 69: 479-485. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  66. Beekhuizen, H., I. Blokland, A. J. Corsel van Tilburg, F. Koning, R. van Furth. 1991. CD14 contributes to adherence of human monoctyes to cytokine-stimulated endothelial cells. J. Immunol. 147: 3761-3767. [Abstract]
  67. Singh, A. K., Y. Jiang. 2004. How does peripheral lipopolysaccharide induce gene expression in the brain of rats?. Toxicology 201: 197-207. [Medline]
  68. Glod, J., D. Kobiler, M. Noel, R. Koneru, S. Lehrer, D. Medina, D. Maric, H. A. Fine. 2006. Monocytes form a vascular barrier and participate in vessel repair after brain injury. Blood. 107: 940-946. [Abstract/Free Full Text]
  69. Guillemin, G. J., B. J. Brew. 2004. Microglia, macrophages, perivascular macrophages, and pericytes: a review of function and identification. J. Leukocyte Biol. 75: 388-397. [Abstract/Free Full Text]



This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Infect. Immun.Home page
M. d. l. C. Dominguez-Punaro, M. Segura, D. Radzioch, S. Rivest, and M. Gottschalk
Comparison of the Susceptibilities of C57BL/6 and A/J Mouse Strains to Streptococcus suis Serotype 2 Infection
Infect. Immun., September 1, 2008; 76(9): 3901 - 3910.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Infect. Immun.Home page
N. Fittipaldi, T. Sekizaki, D. Takamatsu, J. Harel, M. d. l. C. Dominguez-Punaro, S. Von Aulock, C. Draing, C. Marois, M. Kobisch, and M. Gottschalk
D-Alanylation of Lipoteichoic Acid Contributes to the Virulence of Streptococcus suis
Infect. Immun., August 1, 2008; 76(8): 3587 - 3594.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Data Supplement
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow Request Permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Domínguez-Punaro, M. C.
Right arrow Articles by Gottschalk, M.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Domínguez-Punaro, M. C.
Right arrow Articles by Gottschalk, M.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS