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* Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (INSERM) U790, Pavillon de Recherche 1, Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France;
Laboratoire d’Hématologie, Hôpital Henri Mondor, Créteil, France;
Unité Immunophysiologie et Parasitisme Intracellulaire, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France; and
Laboratoire d’Anatomopathologie, Hôpital Cochin, Paris, France
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
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1 in plasma from NOD/SCID and SCID mice engrafted with TPO-overexpressing hemopoietic cells reach levels similar to the ones reached in immunocompetent mice, and all animals develop a myeloproliferative disease associated with a dense myelofibrosis at 8 wk posttransplantation. Monocytes in NOD/SCID mice are functionally deficient to secrete cytokines such as IL-1
in response to stimuli, even under TPO expression. Surprisingly, the plasma of these mice displays high levels of IL-, which was demonstrated to originate from platelets. Together, these data suggest that completely functional monocytes are not required to develop myelofibrosis and that platelets are able, under TPO stimulation, to synthesize inflammatory cytokines, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis. |
Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
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1. Through fibroblast stimulation, this cytokine is able to produce extracellular matrix, induce cell adhesion proteins, and enhance expression of proteases that inhibit enzymes involved in the degradation of the extracellular matrix. TGF-1 is secreted by numerous cell lineages, but mainly by monocytes/macrophages and megakaryocytes (MKs)/platelets. Several lines of evidence obtained both from studies of patients with IM (5, 6) or murine models ending with myelofibrosis (7, 8, 9) are in favor of a crucial role of MK in myelofibrosis induction. However, other studies suggested a central role for the monocyte/macrophage lineage. This theory is based on two different observations: 1) Rameshwar et al. (10) reported that monocytes from patients with IM are spontaneously activated and secreted abnormally TGF-1; and 2) Frey et al. (11) reported that thrombopoietin (TPO) overexpression in SCID mice led to myelofibrosis, but not in NOD/SCID mice. Because NOD/SCID mice differ from SCID mice by impaired mononuclear phagocyte functions (12, 13), the authors postulated that monocytes and macrophages must be required for promotion of myelofibrosis in TPO-overexpressing mice. However, these experiments were performed with a human TPO cDNA vectorized in an adenovirus construct that leads to a relatively low elevation of plasma TPO. In the present study, to ensure a high and sustained TPO level, we used a retroviral vector encoding a mouse TPO cDNA to overexpress TPO in NOD/SCID, SCID, and immunocompetent wild-type (WT) mice. All TPOhigh mice invariably developed a myeloproliferative syndrome associated with a myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis. At any time during the follow-up, TPO and TGF-1 plasma levels were substantially and similarly elevated in the three groups of mice. Our data provide evidence that the monocyte/macrophage lineage does not play a crucial role in the development of the myelofibrosis induced by TPO. In addition, platelets and MKs when stimulated are able to synthesize IL-1 and thus to replace monocytes in the synthesis of inflammatory cytokines, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis. |
Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
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All procedures were approved by the local Institut Gustave Roussy ethics committee. WT C57BL/6J mice (Janvier) were maintained at the Institute Gustave Roussy animal facility under specific pathogen-free conditions. SCID mutant mice (C57BL/6J-scid/scid) (14) (Charles River Laboratories) and double NOD/SCID mutant mice (15) (NOD/LtSz-scid/scid obtained from J. Dick (University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada)) were bred under sterile conditions and maintained in isolators. All mice used in this study have the same C57BL/6J genetic background.
Infection procedure
Six- to 8-wk-old WT, SCID, or NOD/SCID male mice were used as bone marrow donors. Seven- to 10-wk-old WT, SCID, or NOD/SCID female mice were recipients. The infection procedure was performed as described previously (7, 16). Briefly, 4 days after 5-fluorouracil treatment (one injection of 150 mg/kg administered i.p.), total bone marrow cells were cocultured with 1 x 106 MPZenTPO virus-producing GP+E-86 cells in DMEM supplemented with antibiotics, 20% FBS and murine IL-3 (100 U/ml), murine IL-6 (20 ng/ml), and murine stem cell factor (20 ng/ml). All cytokines were purchased from R&D Systems. After 4 days, nonadherent cells were harvested. An aliquot was used immediately in clonogenic progenitor assays to determine the percentage of infected colony-forming cells (CFC) as described previously (7, 16). The remaining cells were inoculated i.v. via the retro-orbital sinus into irradiated hosts (9.5 Gy for WT mice or 2.5 Gy for SCID and NOD/SCID mice, x-ray apparatus, single dose) in a ratio of two donors per one recipient. Fifty-one recipients were studied.
Determination of chimerism
Two approaches were used in parallel. First, a PCR analysis was performed on myeloid colonies derived from the bone marrow of sacrificed animals at week 8 after transplantation, with primer sets corresponding to specific sequences on the Y chromosome and with actin primers as control (16). The second approach was a fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis performed on bone marrow cells from mice sacrificed at week 8 after transplantation. Briefly, 1 x 105 bone marrow cells were cytospun and fixed with a 4% formaldehyde solution. Slides were successively incubated for 5 min in 0.1 M HCl and three times in a permeabilization solution containing 0.5% saponin and 0.5% Triton X-100 (Sigma-Aldrich), and then washed in a solution containing 20% glycerol. After three freezing/thawing, slides were incubated in 20% glycerol, deshydrated with ethanol, incubated in a 70% formamide solution at 75°C, and deshydrated again. A denatured rhodamine-labeled Y probe (purchased by QBiogene) was hybridized overnight at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere. The slides were incubated in a 60% formamide solution at 43°C, washed in SSC 0.1% Tween 20, and counterstained with Vectashield and 4',6'-diamidino-2-phenylindole (Vector Laboratories). Numeration of Y-labeled cells was performed on 500 cells for each slide using a fluorescence microscope (Nikon Eclipse 600).
Hematologic evaluation and histopathology
Blood from the orbital plexus was collected in citrated tubes at indicated times. Nucleated blood cells, hematocrit level, and platelet counts were determined using an automated blood counter calibrated for mouse blood (MS9; Schloesing Melet). Differential cell counts were performed after May-Grünwald-Giemsa staining. Platelet-poor plasma was used for determination of TPO, IL-1, IL-1, and TGF-1 levels. Eight weeks after transplantation, mice in each group were killed. Bones were excised and cleaned of soft tissue. One femur and one tibia were fixed in formaldehyde, decalcified, and paraffin embedded. Spleen, liver, and pulmonary samples were fixed and embedded in the same manner. Sections (4.5 µm) were stained with H&E, periodic acid-Schiff, and Giemsa for overall cytology analysis. Reticulin fibers were revealed by silver staining according to Gordon Sweet method. In parallel, 105 bone marrow, spleen, and blood cells were grown in semisolid medium for CFC analysis as described previously (16, 17).
TUNEL analysis
To detect and quantify MK apoptosis, we performed in situ TUNEL analysis on histological sections of bone marrow and spleen from control mice (WT, SCID, and NOD/SCID) or TPOhigh mice (WT, SCID, and NOD/SCID). DNA strand breaks generated during apoptosis were identified using In Situ Cell Death Detection Kit (POD; Roche) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Samples were analyzed under a light microscope, and quantification of apoptotic MKs was performed. Results were expressed as the percentage of apoptotic MKs among the total MK population.
Production of bone marrow-derived monocytes
Bone marrow cells were harvested from femurs and tibia of age- and sex-matched control or TPOhigh mice (WT and NOD/SCID). Cells were cultured (1.6 x 106 cells/ml), as described previously (18), in DMEM supplemented with antibiotics, 10% FBS, and 10% CSF-1-conditioned medium (provided by M. Lebastard, Unité Immunophysiologie et Parasitisme Intracellulaire, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France) with and without 10 U/ml IFN-
. Bone marrow cells were cultured at 37°C in a humidified incubator (5% CO2) with an addition of fresh medium at day 3. After 5 days in culture, nonadherent cells were removed and centrifuged for 10 min at 400 x g. Pellets were suspended in DMEM with antibiotics and 10% FBS by flushing through, successively, 25-, 27-, and 30-gauge needles, and single-cell suspensions were produced. Cells (2 x 105 cells/ml) were seeded in fresh medium alone (DMEM supplemented with antibiotics, 10% FBS, and 10% CSF-1-conditioned medium) or in fresh medium containing Escherichia coli LPS at 10 µg/ml. After a 24-h incubation period, culture supernatants were harvested and used for determination of IL-1 level.
Platelets and leukocytes preparations
Mice were anesthetized and bled by cardiac puncture. Blood from age- and sex-matched control or TPOhigh mice (WT and NOD/SCID) was collected onto 3.8% Na citrate (9 vol blood/1 vol citrate). Whole blood (500 µl) was mixed with 500 µl of buffer saline glucose citrate (BSGC) (129 mM NaCl, 13.6 mM Na3 citrate, 11.1 mM D+ glucose, 1.6 mM K2PO4, and 8.6 mM NaH2PO4) and spun at 400 x g. Platelet-rich plasma was layered over a 10-ml Sepharose B column (Pharmacia), and pellets were used for leukocyte RNA analysis after red cell lysis. To minimize leukocyte contamination, only the upper (9 of 10) platelet-rich plasma was used for gel filtration. Platelets were collected, adjusted at a concentration of 50 x 106/ml, and pelleted by centrifugation. Pellets were used for protein or RNA analysis. For protein analysis, platelets were lysed by three successive freezing/thawings, suspended in 1 ml of BSGC, and centrifuged to remove platelet debris. Supernatants were used to determine IL-1 level.
ELISA
Plasma TPO levels and IL-1 and IL-1 levels in plasma or supernatants were determined with the appropriate murine Quantikine Kits from R&D Systems, according to manufacturer’s instructions. Sensitivity limits of the assays were 62.5, 4.69, and 7.8 pg/ml, respectively, for TPO, IL-1, and IL-1. Human TGF-1 immunoassay, which detects only active forms of TGF-1, was used for circulating TGF-1 level determination (Quantikine Kit; R&D Systems). Samples were assayed after acidification (active and latent forms) according to manufacturer’s instructions. The sensitivity of the assay was 31.2 pg/ml active TGF-1.
Real-time PCR for cytokine quantification
Total RNA extraction from circulating platelets and leukocytes of age- and sex-matched control or TPOhigh WT mice was performed using either TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen Life Technologies) or the RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen), following the manufacturer’s recommendations. Total RNA was reverse transcribed in first-strand cDNA using random hexamers (Roche Diagnostics) and Moloney Murine Leukemia Virus Reverse Transcriptase (Invitrogen Life Technologies).
PCR amplifications were conducted on the LightCycler (Roche Diagnostics) in duplicate or triplicate capillaries in a final volume of 11 µl. Two microliters of cDNA along with primers (500 nM; Roche Diagnostics) and SYBG Green containing mix (QuantiTect SYBR Green Kit; Qiagen) were used per reaction. CD45-, CD11b-, IL-1-, IL-1-, and TGF-1-specific primers were obtained from published literature or designed by the LightCycler Probe Design software (version 1.0; Idaho Technology). Identical thermal cycling conditions were used for all targets, allowing efficient synthesis of all amplicons (Table I). Crossing Points were determined with the FitPoint method (LightCycler software, version 3.3) at a constant fluorescent level in the early stage of the exponential phase of the reaction. Using the tool Gene Expression Macro from Bio-Rad, relative expression values were expressed for each sample compared with a sample calibrator (a pool of platelets from control WT mice). The underlying principles and calculations are described in studies by VandeSompele et al. (19). Briefly, the Bio-Rad tool calculates a gene expression normalization factor for each sample based on the geometric mean of a user-defined number of housekeeping genes. To allow a better normalization between samples within this study, three housekeeping genes were used, namely -actin, GAPDH (21), and integrin IIb/CD41. Then, taking into account the PCR efficiencies for each target mRNA as described in the mathematical model developed by M. W. Pfaffl (22), the algorithm provided values for each sample relative to the sample calibrator.
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Results are presented as mean ± SEM, and data were analyzed with the two-tailed Student t test.
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Results |
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The different x-ray irradiation protocols used for SCID and NOD/SCID mice compared with WT may lead to different levels of chimerism and subsequently different pathological processes in hemopoietic tissues. We analyzed the host chimerism in sex-mismatched transplantations using two approaches: PCR on Y chromosome (donors were males, recipients were females) on bone marrow-derived myeloid colonies, and FISH on Y chromosome analysis on whole nucleated bone marrow cells. Chimerism levels were similar in TPOhigh WT, SCID, and NOD/SCID mice when studied on myeloid colonies 8 wk posttransplantation (69 ± 18% (n = 3 mice), 62 ± 15% (n = 4 mice), and 67 ± 16% (n = 5 mice), respectively). Moreover, studies by FISH on marrow cells gave identical results as those from PCR.
Retroviral transfer efficiency
To obtain a highly elevated and long-lasting overexpression of a mouse TPO molecule in immunodeficient SCID and NOD/SCID mice, we used a previously described retroviral gene transfer protocol in which lethally irradiated hosts are hematologically repopulated with transduced stem cells (7). Because SCID and NOD/SCID mice could not be heavily irradiated before bone marrow transplantation (23), and to overcome a possible risk of a low chimerism, 10 times more cells (6–8 x 106 cells) were engrafted into 2.5 Gy-irradiated SCID and NOD/SCID mice as compared with 6 x 105 cells injected in 9.5 Gy-irradiated WT mice. Transduction efficiencies were determined at the end of the infection protocol before transplantation in myeloid progenitor-derived colonies. For each mouse genotype, two independent infection experiments were performed with a total of 51 hosts engrafted. As shown from PCR analysis, the percentage of colonies demonstrating the integrated TPO cDNA was comparable in the three groups of mice (Table II). Plasma levels of TPO were determined in the three groups of engrafted mice over time using an ELISA. Six weeks postengraftment, TPO concentration in plasma was 1,000- to 10,000-fold higher than normal. Thereafter, the magnitude of the increase was comparable in the three groups (Fig. 1).
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Platelet numbers in TPOhigh WT mice increased over 8 wk, achieving values 4-fold higher than control WT mice. TPOhigh SCID mice present the same features. In TPOhigh NOD/SCID mice, platelet numbers increased less significantly with barely a 2-fold increment over controls (Fig. 2A). Macroplatelets were observed in all mice for which blood smears were performed. As previously reported, no correlation between TPO levels and platelet numbers was observed (17). Nucleated blood cells were increased in all groups of mice (Fig. 2B) due to a striking increment in mature polymorphonuclear neutrophils in association with immature myeloid precursor cells (data not shown). Leukocyte numbers were more elevated in TPOhigh WT and SCID mice than in TPOhigh NOD/SCID mice, without significant difference. TPOhigh WT and NOD/SCID mice became progressively anemic; however, TPOhigh SCID mice spontaneously corrected this anemia over time (Fig. 2C).
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Fibrosis on femur and spleen sections is similar in all TPOhigh mice
Histological sections revealed a massive hyperplasia of maturing granulocytic cells and dysmorphic MKs found in large clusters. Erythroblasts were rare. Increased reticulin fibers were noted in bone marrow samples at 8 wk postengraftment. No differences were observed between the TPOhigh WT, SCID, or NOD/SCID mice (Fig. 3). Osseous cortex was a bit thicker in TPOhigh NOD/SCID than in TPOhigh SCID or WT, but some bone trabeculae were seen in the marrow cavity in the three lineages. In spleen samples, hyperplasia of the red pulp was observed without white pulp in TPOhigh SCID and NOD/SCID. MKs were extremely abundant as well as neutrophils. Numerous MKs were observed in large sheets in TPOhigh WT in the red pulp and in TPOhigh NOD/SCID (more frequently than in TPOhigh SCID mice). Apoptotic figures of MKs were often seen in TPOhigh WT and SCID mice. Erythroid cells were observed. Similar reticulin deposits were seen 8 wk posttransplantation in all TPOhigh mice analyzed.
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To study whether myelofibrosis could be the consequence of a dysmegakaryopoiesis, we studied whether apoptotic MKs were increased in TPOhigh mice. Apoptotic MKs were detected using TUNEL analysis on histological sections of both bone marrow and spleen from control and TPOhigh mice (WT, SCID, and NOD/SCID). Percentages of apoptotic MKs are illustrated in Table IV. Apoptosis of bone marrow and spleen MKs was increased in all TPOhigh mice in comparison to controls. Representative sections of spleen from WT control (Fig. 3G) and TPOhigh WT (Fig. 3H) mice are shown in Fig. 3.
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1 level
In this TPOhigh mouse model, fibrosis development has been reported to be a direct consequence of high TGF-1 level in blood and bone marrow fluids (17). TGF-1 level was thus measured in the three groups of TPOhigh mice at different times posttransplantation. As reported before in an immunocompetent background (16), TGF-1 levels were invariably increased in plasma as soon as 3 wk after transplantation (data not shown). These levels increased with time, leading to a 2- to 4-fold higher level than in control mice after 6 wk (Fig. 2D). Such an increase in TGF-1 level was also noticed in TPOhigh SCID mice but was detected later in the TPOhigh NOD/SCID mice background (2-fold higher level than normal at 8 wk only).
Increased plasma IL-1 level
Because it has been reported that TGF-1 is regulated by IL-1 in human IM (24), and that NOD/SCID monocytes have a major defect in the synthesis of IL-1 (12), we investigated the IL-1 and IL-1 levels in these mice. IL-1 and IL-1 were both quantified in plasma with specific ELISA. Surprisingly, we found a dramatic increase (up to 8-fold the normal value) in IL-1 levels in all TPOhigh mice analyzed at 6 and 8 wk posttransplantation (Fig. 4A). However, IL-1 was detected only 8 wk posttransplantation (data not shown).
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To test whether TPO overexpression could correct the IL-1 synthesis defect of NOD/SCID monocytes, monocytes were cultured from control WT, control NOD/SCID, TPOhigh WT, and TPOhigh NOD/SCID bone marrow isolated cells in the presence of CSF-1 with or without IFN-. After 5 days, LPS was added (10 µg/ml), and 24 h later, the culture supernatants were harvested and assayed for IL-1 level. Monocytes from NOD/SCID mice secreted less IL-1 in response to IFN- stimulation compared with WT monocytes as described previously (12). TPO overexpression did not improve IL-1 secretion, indicating that monocyte dysfunction in NOD/SCID mice was not corrected by TPO overexpression (Fig. 5).
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in TPOhigh mice
Lindeman et al. (25) have reported that human platelets synthesize and secrete IL-1 in response to activation stimuli. Because we observed an increase in IL-1 level in TPOhigh NOD/SCID mice that have deficient monocytes, we hypothesized that platelets from these mice could also synthesize high levels of IL-1 in response to TPO.
Platelets from control WT and NOD/SCID mice or from TPOhigh WT and NOD/SCID mice were collected and lysed. Lysates (50 x 106 platelets/ml) were harvested and assayed for IL-1 concentration. Levels of IL-1 in platelets from control WT mice were low and below the threshold of detection in control NOD/SCID mice (Fig. 4B). However, when platelets were collected from TPOhigh WT and NOD/SCID mice, a marked elevation in IL-1 content in platelets was detected, indicating that TPO could regulate IL-1. Using this approach, we failed to detect IL-1 in these platelet lysates.
Transcriptional regulation of IL-1 and TGF-1 in TPOhigh mice
Quantitative RT-PCR on Sepharose column-purified platelets from control WT and TPOhigh WT mice was performed to determine whether TPO overexpression could be responsible for IL-1 and TGF-1 protein overexpression. IL-1, IL-1, and TGF-1 quantification was performed on two independent WT platelet pools used as "calibrator" and "control" (pools were performed to lower interindividual variations, and because RNA from nonthrombocythemic mice was obtained in low quantity) and in five individual TPOhigh WT mice, TPOhigh1–TPOhigh5. Fold changes are expressed relative to calibrator. The normalization factor used for each sample was based on the geometric mean of three housekeeping genes (-actin, GAPGH, and IIb).
To check potential leukocyte contamination, we used CD45- and CD11b-specific primers (two highly expressed genes in purified leukocytes from the same animals). No transcript was detected, illustrating a very low presence or absence of leukocyte. A 4- to 12-fold overexpression of IL-1 was found in the five TPOhigh mice (Fig. 6). This observation was strictly correlated to the protein overexpression determined in platelet extracts from the same animals. A slight increase in TGF-1 was also found in these mice. According to the lack of IL-1 protein, no increase in IL-1 transcript was found.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
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In this study, we demonstrated, using a retroviral vector, that high TPO levels induce myelofibrosis in the NOD/SCID mice similar to the one developed by WT or SCID mice. All of these mice developed a very similar disease, but, strikingly, SCID mice had only a mild anemia. This demonstrates that T and B cells (deficient in SCID and NOD/SCID mice) as well as monocyte/macrophage (deficient in NOD/SCID mice) are probably not directly involved in the development of myelofibrosis in this murine model. In fact, both level and site of TPO overexpression appear to influence myelofibrosis development (31). For example, first-described transgenic mice overexpressing TPO (32) using a liver-specific apolipoprotein E promoter did not exhibit myelofibrosis or osteosclerosis, whereas recently described TPO transgenic mice driven by the IgH promoter (33) developed myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis with the same plasma TPO level as the former model.
The TPOhigh and GATA-1low mice develop a myeloproliferative disorder featuring numerous aspects of the human disease including dysmegakaryopoiesis (5). Histological analyses at the time of myelofibrosis occurrence showed very large-sized platelets with empty granules and dysmorphic MK with pycnotic nuclei and increased emperipolesis (34). Recently, it has been demonstrated that a unique and acquired mutation of JAK2 (JAK2V617F) is associated with BCR/ABL-negative myeloproliferative disorders including IM (35, 36, 37, 38). When the JAK2V617F is expressed in mice, it leads to the development of a polycythemia vera, which progresses to myelofibrosis (C. Lacout, D. F. Pisani, M. Tulliez, F. Moreau-Gachelin, W. Vainchenker, and J. L. Villeval, submitted for publication). The fact that a constitutively active JAK2 may be associated with IM in human suggests that alteration in the TPO/c-mpl signaling may be at the origin of this dysmegakaryopoiesis. It is possible that in the TPOhigh mice, a long-lasting stimulation leads to a Mpl traffic defect and an altered signaling (S. Constantinescu, unpublished observation). This may secondarily imply transcription factors such as GATA-1, which are implicated in MK survival, proliferation, and differentiation. In favor of this hypothesis, it has been shown by Vannucchi et al. (39) that in TPOhigh and GATA-1low mice, TPO, GATA-1, and TGF-1 are linked in an upstream-downstream relationship.
However, how a high level of TPO can induce myelofibrosis development remains unknown. TPO could regulate synthesis and release of cytokines or induce a dysmegakaryopoiesis. In this study, we show that TPO overexpression directly or indirectly induces apoptosis of MKs in bone marrow and spleen from TPOhigh mice using TUNEL technology, regardless of genetic background. This result suggests that the main mechanism of TPO-induced myelofibrosis is related to a dysmegakaryopoiesis.
In this study, we were able to demonstrate that TPO induced an increased synthesis of IL-1 by platelets. Indeed, numerous cytokines are involved in myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis, including TGF (TGF-1), platelet-derived growth factor, basic fibroblastic growth factor, and IL-1. Experiments in TPOhigh mice have established the pivotal role of the hemopoietic cell derived-TGF-1 in the promotion of myelofibrosis (17) and the role of the stromal osteoprotegerin produced by the microenvironment in the promotion of osteosclerosis (16). Accordingly, we found elevated TGF-1 plasma levels in all TPOhigh mice analyzed and a slight increase of the TGF-1 transcript in platelets. Thus, TGF-1 appears to originate from platelets. The slight increase of its transcript could be explained by the 2- to 4-fold higher thrombocytosis displayed by the TPOhigh mice. Moreover, we found increased IL-1 plasma levels in all mice analyzed, including in the monocyte-deficient NOD/SCID. This means that IL-1 may have another cellular origin than monocytes in this model. There is strong evidence that platelets have transcripts for both IL-1 and IL1- (40) in humans and are innate, inflammatory cells able to release inflammatory cytokines after activation (25). To clearly determine whether platelets may be involved in this excess level of IL-1 in TPOhigh mice, we studied the presence of the IL-1 protein and transcript in platelet extracts from these mice. We found high levels of IL-1 protein and transcript in TPOhigh mice, indicating that platelets (and probably MKs) can replace the monocyte/macrophage function to produce IL-1 when TPO levels become sufficiently high. However, we cannot exclude that nonhemopoietic cells could be also involved in this synthesis of IL-1. The role of IL-1 in human IM is not completely solved. It has been suggested that IL-1 and probably the NF-
B pathway play a role in the pathogenesis of IM (10). IL-1 may indirectly regulate the TGF-1 synthesis and, consequently, the development of myelofibrosis as suggested by Rameshwar et al. (24), and we recently have shown that the NF-B pathway is also activated in MK from IM patients (41). In addition, there is strong evidence that IL-1 is implicated in the regulation of the bone mass. Notably, IL-1 is able to induce osteoprotegerin synthesis (42) by stromal cells, inhibiting the development of osteoclasts and consequently inducing the development of osteosclerosis. Thus, in the future, TPO overexpression in double IL-1/IL-1 knockout mice (43) may be important in understanding the precise role of IL-1 in the promotion of both myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis. In addition, platelets are able to synthesize several other inflammatory molecules such as CD40-L (44), which are involved in the development of fibrosis (45). It remains to determine whether these molecules could also play a role in the pathogenesis of myelofibrosis. If this hypothesis is validated, it could open a new avenue in the therapeutic approach of IM by targeting the NF-B pathway.
In summary, our results have shown that completely functional monocytes/macrophages are not required for the development of myelofibrosis induced by TPO. Together with the GATA-1low model, the TPOhigh model of myelofibrosis in the mouse underscores the role of the MK/platelet lineage in the development of myelofibrosis.
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Acknowledgments |
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Disclosures |
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Footnotes |
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1 This work was supported by grants from INSERM and La Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer Équipe Labellisée 2000, fellowships from Association pour la Recherche sur la Cancer and INSERM (Poste d’Accueil) (to O.W.-B.), and the Research Ministry (to H.C.). 
2 H.C. and E.P. contributed equally to this work.
3 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Stéphane Giraudier, Hôpital Henri Mondor, Laboratoire d’Hématologie, 51 Avenue du Maréchal de Lattre de Tassigny, 94000 Créteil, France. E-mail address: stephane.giraudier{at}hmn.ap-hop-paris.fr or sgiraudi{at}igr.fr
4 Abbreviations used in this paper: IM, idiopathic myelofibrosis; MK, megakaryocyte; TPO, thrombopoietin; WT, wild type; CFC, colony-forming cells; FISH, fluorescent in situ hybridization.
Received for publication September 29, 2005. Accepted for publication March 2, 2006.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
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 C. E. Brown, R. P. Vishwanath, B. Aguilar, R. Starr, J. Najbauer, K. S. Aboody, and M. C. Jensen Tumor-Derived Chemokine MCP-1/CCL2 Is Sufficient for Mediating Tumor Tropism of Adoptively Transferred T Cells J. Immunol., September 1, 2007; 179(5): 3332 - 3341. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 O. Wagner-Ballon, D. F. Pisani, T. Gastinne, M. Tulliez, R. Chaligne, C. Lacout, F. Aurade, J.-L. Villeval, P. Gonin, W. Vainchenker, et al. Proteasome inhibitor bortezomib impairs both myelofibrosis and osteosclerosis induced by high thrombopoietin levels in mice Blood, July 1, 2007; 110(1): 345 - 353. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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