| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
* Division of Dermatology, University of California, and Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare Center, San Diego, CA 92161;
Division of Allergy and Immunology, Department of Pediatrics, National Jewish Medical and Research Center, Denver, CO 80206; and
San Gallicano Dermatological Institute, Rome, Italy
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
In the skin, antimicrobial peptides can be released by resident cells such as keratinocytes, mast cells, and eccrine gland epithelia or are deposited by recruited cells such as neutrophils (5). Cathelicidins comprise one such family of antimicrobial peptides and exert their effects on a broad range of microbes, including Gram-positive and -negative bacteria as well as fungi and enveloped viruses (6, 7). Humans have a single cathelicidin gene encoding hCAP18/LL-37 (8, 9). In addition to being expressed by several cells of the skin, hCAP18/LL-37 is abundantly expressed in neutrophils and in multiple mucosal epithelia, such as airways (10), buccal mucosa, tongue, esophagus, cervix, vagina (11), and salivary glands (12). In certain cell types, such as those found in eccrine sweat glands, cathelicidin is constitutively expressed (12). In other cells, such as keratinocytes, cathelicidin expression is inducible (3) and is rapidly up-regulated in the epidermis after injury (13). The role that cathelicidins play in host defense extends beyond their ability to directly kill pathogens. The hCAP18 precursor protein is processed upon neutrophil granule fusion to a 37-aa peptide form, LL-37, by cleavage with a serine protease (14). This form of the human cathelicidin has been shown to be involved in chemotaxis of mast cells, neutrophils, and CD4 T cells (15, 16) and can modify dendritic cell and keratinocyte function (17, 18). The chemotactic property of LL-37 has been associated with binding via formyl peptide receptor-like 1 (FPRL-1)2 (19), which belongs to the Gi protein-coupled receptor family. Other host cell activities appear to be independent of FPRL-1 and can involve upstream activation of P2X7 or epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) (20, 21).
Human cathelicidin peptides can exist naturally in forms other than LL-37. In sweat, three additional forms have been found: KR-20, a 20-aa derivative; RK-31, a 31-aa derivative; and KS-30, a 30-aa derivative. All three processed peptides exhibit an overall gain in antimicrobial activity compared with full-length LL-37 (22). The importance of processing human cathelicidin from LL-37 as the form first released from neutrophils to smaller peptide fragments is unclear.
To investigate the functional implications of LL-37 in the skin, the current study explored the gene expression profile of keratinocytes after exposure to LL-37 and found profound changes in cytokine and chemokine expression and release. The structural basis of this response was studied by generating a library of LL-37-derived synthetic peptide fragments. Observations from these experiments defined specific domains within LL-37 that are important for antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral activity as well as host immunostimulatory activity. Peptides with the ability to stimulate keratinocytes did not completely correlate with those that were antimicrobial, suggesting that processing of cathelicidin peptides can be an important modifier of host cell immune responsiveness. Additional mechanistic studies suggested that membrane-active LL-37 peptides may indirectly stimulate keratinocyte cell surface receptors and activate downstream signaling cascades, leading to changes in gene expression by host cells.
|
Materials and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
Neonatal human epidermal keratinocytes (Cascade Biologics) were grown in EpiLife medium (Cascade Biologics) supplemented with 0.06 mM Ca2+, 1% EpiLife defined growth supplement, and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (Invitrogen Life Technologies). Cells were grown at 37°C in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 95% air. The Wyeth strain Vaccinia was obtained from the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention.
DNA microarray analysis
Normal human keratinocytes were cultured to confluence in 100-mm dishes and treated with 0 or 10 µM LL-37 for 8 h. Total RNA was extracted using the Qiagen RNeasy kit. The Veterans Administration Medical Center GeneChip Core Facility processed five HuGeneFL GeneChips (Affymetrix) using 250–300 ng of total RNA/chip. Two chips were used for control keratinocytes, and three chips were used for the 10 µM LL-37-treated keratinocytes. Data were analyzed using GeneChip operating software and GeneSpring (Silicon Genetics). Data were filtered by genes showing >3-fold change in peptide-treated vs medium alone, and by statistical significance with p < 0.05 by two-tailed Student’s t test.
Cytokine expression analysis
Keratinocytes were cultured to preconfluence, confluence, or 2 days postconfluence and treated with 0, 3, or 10 µM LL-37 for 24 h. Cytokine release was measured using the LINCOplex Human Cytokine Multiplex kit according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Linco Research). Briefly, the filter plate was blocked for 10 min, followed by the addition of standards, samples, and beads. The plate was sealed, covered with aluminum foil, and incubated with shaking for 1 h. Wells were then washed twice, and detection Ab was added. The plate was again sealed and covered with aluminum foil, then incubated with shaking for 30 min. Streptavidin-PE was added to each well, and the plate was incubated an additional 30 min. Wells were washed twice, and sheath fluid was added. The plate was shaken for 5 min, then read using Luminex100.
Measurement of IL-1
release from keratinocytes
Normal human epidermal keratinocytes were cultured to confluence and treated with 0 or 10 µM LL-37 in keratinocyte medium for 1 or 24 h at 37°C. IL-1 production was determined by IL-1 ELISA (R&D Systems) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, 96-well plates were coated overnight with capture Ab. Wells were blocked for 1 h, after which standards and samples (1/10 dilution) were added, and the plate was incubated for 2 h. Wells were incubated with detection Ab for an additional 2 h, followed by streptavidin-HRP for 20 min in the dark. The plate was incubated with substrate solution for 20 min in the dark. Without washing, stop solution was added to each well, and the plate was immediately read at 450 nm with correction at 570 nm.
LL-37 and LL-37 peptide fragment synthesis
LL-37, LL-25, LL-20, LL-15, LL-12, GD-23, RK-19, EK-20, KR-20, VQ-17, EK-15, GK-17, EF-15, RK-31, and KS-30 peptides were commercially prepared by Synpep. These sequences were selected based on predicted -helical domains of LL-37 from alignments of -helical cathelicidin family members from various species. These peptides represent N- and C-terminal LL-37 peptide fragments as well as those central domains conserved among species and include sequences from both -helical domains and disrupted helices. Peptide amino acid sequences are given in Fig. 2. All synthetic peptides were purified by HPLC to >95% purity, and identity was confirmed by mass spectrometry. Peptides were tested for LPS contamination by Limulus assay according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
|
Bacteria were grown overnight in sterile tryptic soy broth. Bacteria in log phase were suspended to 1 x 106 CFU/ml in 10% tryptic soy broth (30 g/l stock; Sigma-Aldrich) in 10 mM phosphate buffer (27.6 g/l NaH2PO4-H2O and 53.65 g/l Na2HPO4-7H2O, pH 7.4). Peptide was added and incubated overnight at 37°C. The OD was then measured at 600 nm. Peptide activity against Candida albicans was determined in Dixon medium (0.6% peptone, 4% malt extract, 1% glucose, 0.1% ox bile, and 1% Tween 80) in sterile 96-well plates (Corning Glass) at a final volume of 50 µl. The assay mixtures contained 1–2.5 x 104 CFU/ml C. albicans, 20% Dixon medium, 0.6 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.0), and 16 µg/ml chloramphenicol. Plates were incubated at 25°C for 24 h with peptides, and absorbance was read at 600 nm.
Antiviral assay
BS-C-1 (American Type Culture Collection; CCL-26) African green monkey kidney cells (2 x 105 cells/well) were seeded in 24-well tissue culture plates in MEM-10% FCS and penicillin/streptomycin and allowed to grow overnight before the supernatant was removed and replaced with MEM-2.5% FCS for virus incubation. Peptides were diluted to the proper concentrations in 0.01x tryptic soy broth containing 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.4). Virus diluted in the same buffer was added to the peptides and incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Twenty microliters of the peptide/virus mixture was added to the cells in 0.5 ml of MEM-2.5% FCS and allowed to infect for 48 h for plaque development. The medium was removed, and 0.5 ml of 0.1% crystal violet in PBS was added to the wells for 5 min at room temperature. Wells were then aspirated and air-dried for visualization of plaques.
Measurement of IL-8 release from keratinocytes
Keratinocytes were cultured to confluence and treated with the peptide of interest in keratinocyte medium at 37°C. For the cathelicidin peptide fragment panel and dose-response assays, peptides were incubated with keratinocytes for 6 h. For the time-course assay, cathelicidin peptides were used at a concentration of 3 µM. Supernatants were removed and placed in a sterile 96-well plate for ELISA. IL-8 production was determined by ELISA (BD Biosciences) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, 96-well plates were coated with capture Ab and incubated overnight at 4°C. Wells were washed three times, blocked for 1 h at room temperature, and again washed three times. Standards and 1/20 dilutions of samples were added to each well and incubated for 2 h at room temperature, followed by five washes. Detection Ab was added and incubated for 1 h at room temperature. Wells were washed seven times. Substrate solution was added to each well, and plate was incubated for 30 min at room temperature in the dark. Stop solution was added to each well, and the OD was observed at 450 nm with correction at 570 nm. IL-8 secretion from keratinocytes treated with pertussis toxin (Sigma-Aldrich), the FPRL-1 agonist WKYMVM-NH2 (Phoenix Pharmaceuticals), or the EGFR inhibitor AG1478 (Calbiochem) was assessed by IL-8 ELISA as described.
Quantitative real-time PCR
Keratinocytes were cultured to confluence and treated with the peptide of interest in keratinocyte medium for 6 h at 37°C. Total RNA was isolated from treated cells using an RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen). Isolated RNA was retrotranscribed by reverse transcriptase using the Retroscript kit (Ambion). Briefly, first-strand synthesis combined RNA with 0.4 mM dNTPs and 4 µM random decamers in 16 µl at 80°C for 3 min. The reaction was iced, and 2 µl of 10x RT-PCR buffer, 1 µl of RNase inhibitor, and 1 µl of Moloney murine leukemia virus RT were added and incubated at 42°C for 1 h, then denatured at 92°C for 10 min. Real-time quantitative PCR was performed using an Applied Biosystems 7000 Sequence Detection System. TaqMan predeveloped assay reagents were used to detect human IL-8 (Applied Biosystems), and GAPDH primers and probe were used as an endogenous control. Briefly, 2 µl of the RT reaction was added to 25 µl of TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (Roche), 2.5 µl of target primers and probe, and 20.5 µl of RNase/DNase-free water. The thermal profile was 50°C for 2 min, 95°C for 10 min, and 40 cycles of 94°C for 15 s, followed by 60°C for 1 min. Results were analyzed using the comparative cycle threshold method (Applied Biosystems). Briefly, cycle threshold values were normalized to GAPDH, which was used as an endogenous control, then normalized to the sample chosen as a calibrator. Product specificity was confirmed by generating dissociation curves for the reactions.
Measurement of cell viability
Keratinocytes were incubated for 6 h at 37°C with 0, 3, or 10 µM cathelicidin peptide. Supernatants were collected into clean 96-well plates. Cells were washed three times. Basal medium (100 µl) was added to each well. Viability was assessed using the CellTiter96 Non-Radioactive Cell Proliferation Assay (MTT; Promega) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, dye solution (15 µl) was added to each well, and the plate was incubated 4 h at 37°C. Solubilization/stop solution (100 µl) was added to each well, and the plate was incubated in a dark, moist chamber overnight at room temperature. OD was determined at 570 nm, with correction at 660 nm. Alternatively, cells were incubated briefly with 1.3 µg/ml propidium iodide (PI) after removal of supernatants, and fluorescence intensity was measured using a fluorescence microplate reader at an excitation of 530 nm and an emission of 620 nm. For evaluation of toxicity by membrane permeability to lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), LDH release from cells was measured using the Cytotoxicity Detection kit (Roche). Briefly, 50 µl of catalyst/dye solution was added to 50 µl of cultured supernatant removed from the cells used for the MTT or PI assays described above. Plates were incubated for 25 min at room temperature. OD was determined at 492 nm, with correction at 620 nm.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
The human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide LL-37 has been implicated in a variety of effects on the host immune system, including chemotaxis (16, 19), dendritic cell differentiation (17), and cytokine release (22). Epithelial surfaces such as the skin are exposed to abundant levels of LL-37 during the response to injury or infection. It was of interest to evaluate the response of epidermal keratinocytes to LL-37 at concentrations similar to those found in vivo (13). DNA microarray analysis of cultured keratinocytes exposed to LL-37 for 8 h revealed effects on the transcripts of various genes (Table I). Many genes involved in inflammation, including those encoding IL-8, cyclooxygenase 2, pro-IL-1
, TNF--induced protein 3, and IL-6, were significantly up-regulated.
|
and GM-CSF also increased. No changes were seen in the abundance of IL-1, IL-2, IL-4, or IFN-
(Fig. 1A). For analysis of IL-1, ELISA of cultured supernatant from LL-37-treated keratinocytes was performed and demonstrated a large increase in IL-1 release compared with cells treated with medium only (Fig. 1B). Assays were performed on preconfluent, confluent, and postconfluent cells in the presence of low or high calcium, and no significant differences were found (data not shown).
|
To compare the mechanisms used in antimicrobial activity to those responsible for activating keratinocytes, a library of LL-37-derived peptides was synthesized. The sequences of these peptides are shown in Fig. 2. Select peptides exhibited a broad range of antimicrobial activities against test organisms, which included Gram-negative and -positive bacteria, Vaccinia virus, and C. albicans (Table II). The peptide fragments RK-31 and KS-30 showed the highest overall antimicrobial properties, with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 2 to 16 µM. Peptide fragment GD-23 exhibited the lowest minimal inhibitory concentration against Staphylococcus aureus mprF at 2 µM. LL-25, EK-20, KR-20, GK-17, RK-31, and KS-30 also inhibited the growth of S. aureus mprF better than LL-37. Under these culture conditions, several fragments showed higher activity than LL-37 against Escherichia coli, including LL-25, GD-23, RK-19, EK-20, EK-15, GK-17, EF-15, RK-31, and KS-30.
|
The effects of LL-37 synthetic peptide fragments as well as the structurally divergent D-amino acid form of LL-37 were next compared with full-length LL-37 in assays for keratinocyte IL-8 production. For initial screening, keratinocytes were cultured for 6 h in the presence of peptides at a final concentration of 3 µM. D-LL-37 stimulated the highest production of IL-8 by keratinocytes, followed by LL-37, KS-30, and RK-31, respectively (Fig. 3).
|
|
|
Because 3 µM D-LL-37 was shown to exhibit potent IL-8 immunostimulatory ability in Fig. 3, dose-response experiments were performed to compare the activities of D-LL-37 and LL-37 (Fig. 6). Both LL-37 and D-LL-37, but not EK-20, increased IL-8 protein production in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 6A). Maximal IL-8 induction occurred at a lower concentration of D-LL-37 (4 µM), but both peptides showed equivalent immunostimulatory activity at the highest dose of 10 µM. Therefore, although D-LL-37 appears to be more potent than LL-37, both peptides have equivalent maximal IL-8 stimulatory capacity. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed induction of IL-8 transcript by keratinocytes in response to LL-37 and D-LL-37, but not EK-20 (Fig. 7). It was interesting to note that IL-8 production in response to LL-37 and D-LL-37 correlated directly with membrane permeability, as measured by PI incorporation, suggesting that these events may be connected (Fig. 6B).
|
|
The strict sequence requirement for keratinocyte immunostimulatory activity contrasted with the less stringent domain requirements for broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. However, the potent effects of LL-37 synthesized with D-amino acids suggested that a traditional ligand-receptor binding mechanism for keratinocyte recognition of LL-37 was unlikely. Previous investigations have implicated FPRL-1, a Gi-coupled receptor, in the chemotaxis of neutrophils, monocytes, and T cells in response to LL-37 (19). However, under the culture conditions used in this study, keratinocytes were not responsive to the FPRL-1 ligand WKYMVM-NH2 at concentrations up to 100 times greater than those reported to be effective in other cell types (100 nM; data not shown). Similarly, FPRL-1 expression was not seen in cultured keratinocytes or in whole skin by immunostaining. This result agrees with recent studies demonstrating that FPRL-1 is not involved in LL-37-induced activation of epithelial cells (21) or monocytes (23).
Previous investigations showed that cell activation and signaling by LL-37 can be Gi protein dependent (19) or independent (23). Therefore, the IL-8 response was evaluated after treatment of keratinocytes with the Gi inhibitor, pertussis toxin (PTX), in the presence or the absence of LL-37 or D-LL-37. Because LL-37 and D-LL-37 have different potencies, peptide concentrations that induce equivalent levels of IL-8, 10 µM LL-37 and 4 µM D-LL-37, were chosen for inhibitor experiments. PTX significantly inhibited IL-8 release by keratinocytes in response to either LL-37 or D-LL-37 (Fig. 8). Because LL-37 has also previously been shown to transactivate the EGFR (21), IL-8 production was also assessed in keratinocytes treated with equivalent stimulatory doses of LL-37 and D-LL-37 in the presence of the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor, AG1478. Similar to PTX, treatment with AG1478 significantly inhibited IL-8 release from keratinocytes in response to either LL-37 or D-LL-37 (Fig. 8). Taken together, these results suggest that LL-37 and D-LL-37 activate keratinocyte production of IL-8 through pathways involving both Gi protein signaling and EGFR activation.
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
The findings presented in this study show that LL-37 induces the expression of numerous inflammatory mediators by keratinocytes. The transcripts for IL-8, cyclooxygenase 2, pro-IL-1, and IL-6 were among those significantly up-regulated. Confirmation of protein expression levels by Luminex assay also showed an increase in the proinflammatory mediators TNF- and GM-CSF. The Luminex assay did not show an increase in IL-1 synthesis despite the DNA microarray findings and the prior report of IL-1 induction via upstream activation of the P2X7 receptor (20). This finding was not unexpected; although keratinocytes are able to make both IL-1 and IL-1, they lack the protease required to cleave pro-IL-1 to its active form (27). It is interesting to note that IL-1 is induced after only 1 h of keratinocyte stimulation with LL-37. This immediate response is probably due to the release of stored IL-1, rather than increased synthesis. The additional increase in IL-1 observed at 24 h probably results from increased synthesis by keratinocytes. The ability of LL-37 to increase proinflammatory mediator release from keratinocytes may have a significant impact on the initial phase of cutaneous inflammation. In fact, epidermal resident cells, including keratinocytes, comprise a major independent component of the acute inflammatory response, which is dictated by chemokine and cytokine expression (28, 29). Before additional cleavage to immunologically inactive forms, early deposition of LL-37 in the epidermis could serve as an additional inflammatory mediator through its properties as a chemoattractant or its ability to stimulate expression of other potent chemotactic agents, such as IL-8.
The results of this study suggest that cathelicidin antimicrobial properties have domain specificity. Specifically, the sequences within EK-20 appeared to be necessary, but not sufficient, for optimal antimicrobial activity. LL-20, LL-15, and LL-12, which lack the sequence VQRIKDFLRN, exhibited the lowest overall antimicrobial activity. The first six or seven amino acids of LL-37 did not appear to be essential for antimicrobial activity, because RK-31 and KS-30 lack these amino acids. Generation of an additional peptide library with site-specific amino acid modifications would serve to better define the domain responsible for cathelicidin antimicrobial activity.
Of principal interest in the current study was the lack of direct correlation between antimicrobial activity and host stimulatory effects, which was indicated by measuring IL-8 production. IL-8 was chosen as the indicator for host immunomodulatory activity due to the high induction of IL-8 mRNA and protein expression in LL-37-treated keratinocytes. In addition, previous investigations have shown that antimicrobial peptides, including LL-37 and neutrophil defensins, induce IL-8 synthesis and release by epithelial cells (21, 30). For example, LL-37, RK-31, and KS-30 exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, but stimulated keratinocytes to increase IL-8 production to varying degrees. EK-20, which also exhibited broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, did not increase IL-8 release. These peptides did not demonstrate significant cytotoxic effects on keratinocytes at concentrations effective for antimicrobial activity or keratinocyte immune stimulation. However, 10 µM LL-37 did affect keratinocyte reduction of MTT, suggesting potential keratinocyte membrane activity at this concentration in culture. Previous structure-function studies of synthetic antimicrobial peptides indicated a dissociation between antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities (31, 32, 33). For example, N-terminal arginine residues of PR-39 were shown to be essential for protein binding and syndecan induction in mammalian cells, whereas modification of C-terminal residues specifically eliminated antimicrobial activity (31). Structural changes to PR-39 influenced antimicrobial activity, whereas mammalian effects were mostly dependent on N-terminal charge. The results of the present study endorse the function of cathelicidin peptides as membrane active agents with relative selectivity for microbial membranes (34). Remarkably, the antimicrobial effects of cathelicidin at concentrations <10 µM extended across bacteria, fungi, and viral envelopes, but spared the eukaryotic plasma membrane of keratinocytes.
The observation that D-LL-37 has more potent immunostimulatory activity than LL-37 raises additional questions pertaining to the mechanism by which peptide treatment induces IL-8 production by keratinocytes. D-LL-37 induced maximal IL-8 release at a low concentration (4 µM), whereas a higher concentration of LL-37 (10 µM) was required for equivalent induction at both the mRNA and protein levels. Interestingly, LL-37 caught up with D-LL-37, reaching the same maximum IL-8 level, albeit at a different dose. The more potent activity of D-LL-37, compared with LL-37, may reflect the resistance to proteolytic degradation of proteins composed of amino acids in the synthetic D form. Thus, additional activity may be a consequence of a higher final concentration after incubation with cells producing active proteases. Furthermore, as expected of membrane-active agents, cell permeability and membrane disruption corresponded directly with IL-8 mRNA and protein production in response to these peptides.
The mechanism by which cathelicidin peptides exert their effects on keratinocytes is unclear. Several receptors have been previously implicated in the host stimulatory effects of LL-37, including FPRL-1, EGFR, and P2X7 (19, 20, 21, 23). The current data suggest that specific binding to one of these receptors is an unlikely explanation for the response observed in keratinocytes, because both LL-37 and D-LL-37 induced a maximal IL-8 response. The potent activity of D-LL-37 argues against a highly structure-specific association of cathelicidin peptides with a cell surface receptor, although potential binding to a promiscuous pattern recognition receptor could account for activation by peptides in both the L and D forms, but not by the shorter peptides. Interestingly, treatment with AG1478 and PTX, either independently or in combination, blocked keratinocyte IL-8 induction in response to LL-37 and D-LL-37. Reduced IL-8 production by keratinocytes treated with these inhibitors suggests that the signaling mechanism generated at the membrane by LL-37 and D-LL-37 involves both the EGF receptor and membrane-associated Gi proteins. Gi proteins, which are classically described as being associated with G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), are recruited to the intracellular side of the membrane after receptor activation. However, at least three activators of G protein signaling that act independently of these typical receptors have been described (35). Although the data presented in this study suggest that LL-37 peptides permeabilize the cell membrane and are therefore able to enter cells, the ability of these peptides to directly interact with these intracellular activators of G protein signaling was not investigated.
Previous studies have demonstrated ligand-independent transactivation of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), such as EGFR, by GPCRs (36, 37, 38, 39, 40). The occurrence of cross-talk between the GPCR and EGFR signaling pathways, which is regulated by the metalloprotease kuzbanian (ADAM10), may help to explain the inhibitory effects of both PTX and AG1478 on the keratinocyte IL-8 response (41, 42). Other studies have suggested that cellular stresses also perturb the cell surface and alter receptor conformation, thereby activating intracellular signaling pathways (36, 37, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47). In a similar manner, LL-37 may directly interact with the keratinocyte plasma membrane to cause conformational changes that indirectly activate surface receptor domains linked to intracellular signaling molecules. Although the mechanism by which GPCR and RTK signaling pathways converge has not been completely determined, recent work has suggested that these pathways may run parallel and fulfill different signaling functions (48, 49). Therefore, LL-37-mediated activation of transmembrane receptors, including both GPCRs and RTKs, in addition to influences on keratinocyte membrane ionic equilibrium should be further explored to understand the mechanism by which LL-37 peptides activate downstream production of immunostimulatory molecules by keratinocytes.
These observations support previous studies in several cell, animal, and human systems that cathelicidin peptides have properties of both natural antibiotics and host stimulatory molecules (6, 50, 51, 52, 53). The rapid increase in cathelicidin at epithelial interfaces exposed to injury or infection can provide a simultaneous barrier to microbial proliferation and an additional alarm to the host. The term alarmins, which was recently proposed to refer to peptides such as the cathelicidins or defensins, is quite appropriate in this model (54). Proteolytic processing at sites of peptide deposition could enable the epithelia to further modify the spectra of biologic activity of cathelicidin peptides and regulate the balance of activity between host immune modulation and inhibition of microbial growth. Additional studies examining changes in membrane fluidity, ion transport, and receptor aggregation in the presence of LL-37 will offer pertinent information concerning the mechanism by which LL-37 stimulates keratinocytes to produce IL-8 and other proinflammatory molecules.
|
Disclosures |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
|
Footnotes |
|---|
1 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Richard L. Gallo, Division of Dermatology, University of California, and Veterans Affairs San Diego Healthcare Center, San Diego, CA 92161. E-mail address: rgallo{at}ucsd.edu 
2 Abbreviations used in this paper: FPRL-1, formyl peptide receptor-like 1; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; GPCR, G protein-coupled receptor; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; PI, propidium iodide; PTX, pertussis toxin; RTK, receptor tyrosine kinase.
Received for publication August 12, 2004. Accepted for publication January 12, 2005.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDisclosuresReferences |
|---|
-defensins are expressed by specific lymphocyte and monocyte populations. Blood 96:3086. processing and release. J. Immunol. 172:4987.: different strategies of IL-1 production and processing in monocytes and keratinocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 87:1066.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  C.-S. Yang, D.-M. Shin, K.-H. Kim, Z.-W. Lee, C.-H. Lee, S. G. Park, Y. S. Bae, and E.-K. Jo NADPH Oxidase 2 Interaction with TLR2 Is Required for Efficient Innate Immune Responses to Mycobacteria via Cathelicidin Expression J. Immunol., March 15, 2009; 182(6): 3696 - 3705. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Peric, S. Koglin, S.-M. Kim, S. Morizane, R. Besch, J. C. Prinz, T. Ruzicka, R. L. Gallo, and J. Schauber IL-17A Enhances Vitamin D3-Induced Expression of Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide in Human Keratinocytes J. Immunol., December 15, 2008; 181(12): 8504 - 8512. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Wang Structures of Human Host Defense Cathelicidin LL-37 and Its Smallest Antimicrobial Peptide KR-12 in Lipid Micelles J. Biol. Chem., November 21, 2008; 283(47): 32637 - 32643. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Tomasinsig, C. Pizzirani, B. Skerlavaj, P. Pellegatti, S. Gulinelli, A. Tossi, F. D. Virgilio, and M. Zanetti The Human Cathelicidin LL-37 Modulates the Activities of the P2X7 Receptor in a Structure-dependent Manner J. Biol. Chem., November 7, 2008; 283(45): 30471 - 30481. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Morioka, K. Yamasaki, D. Leung, and R. L. Gallo Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptides Inhibit Hyaluronan-Induced Cytokine Release and Modulate Chronic Allergic Dermatitis J. Immunol., September 15, 2008; 181(6): 3915 - 3922. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Wang, K. M. Watson, and R. W. Buckheit Jr. Anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Activities of Antimicrobial Peptides Derived from Human and Bovine Cathelicidins Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., September 1, 2008; 52(9): 3438 - 3440. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Di Nardo, K. Yamasaki, R. A. Dorschner, Y. Lai, and R. L. Gallo Mast Cell Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptide Prevents Invasive Group A Streptococcus Infection of the Skin J. Immunol., June 1, 2008; 180(11): 7565 - 7573. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Q. C. K. Cheung, P. V. Turner, C. Song, D. Wu, H. Y. Cai, J. I. MacInnes, and J. Li Enhanced Resistance to Bacterial Infection in Protegrin-1 Transgenic Mice Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., May 1, 2008; 52(5): 1812 - 1819. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Rittie, S. Kansra, S. W. Stoll, Y. Li, J. E. Gudjonsson, Y. Shao, L. E. Michael, G. J. Fisher, T. M. Johnson, and J. T. Elder Differential ErbB1 Signaling in Squamous Cell versus Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin Am. J. Pathol., June 1, 2007; 170(6): 2089 - 2099. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Di Nardo, M. H. Braff, K. R. Taylor, C. Na, R. D. Granstein, J. E. McInturff, S. Krutzik, R. L. Modlin, and R. L. Gallo Cathelicidin Antimicrobial Peptides Block Dendritic Cell TLR4 Activation and Allergic Contact Sensitization J. Immunol., February 1, 2007; 178(3): 1829 - 1834. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 N. Mookherjee, H. L. Wilson, S. Doria, Y. Popowych, R. Falsafi, J. Yu, Y. Li, S. Veatch, F. M. Roche, K. L. Brown, et al. Bovine and human cathelicidin cationic host defense peptides similarly suppress transcriptional responses to bacterial lipopolysaccharide J. Leukoc. Biol., December 1, 2006; 80(6): 1563 - 1574. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. Yamasaki, J. Schauber, A. Coda, H. Lin, R. A. Dorschner, N. M. Schechter, C. Bonnart, P. Descargues, A. Hovnanian, and R. L. Gallo Kallikrein-mediated proteolysis regulates the antimicrobial effects of cathelicidins in skin FASEB J, October 1, 2006; 20(12): 2068 - 2080. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. G. Barlow, Y. Li, T. S. Wilkinson, D. M. E. Bowdish, Y. E. Lau, C. Cosseau, C. Haslett, A. J. Simpson, R. E. W. Hancock, and D. J. Davidson The human cationic host defense peptide LL-37 mediates contrasting effects on apoptotic pathways in different primary cells of the innate immune system J. Leukoc. Biol., September 1, 2006; 80(3): 509 - 520. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. Okuda, S. Yomogida, H. Tamura, and I. Nagaoka Determination of the Antibacterial and Lipopolysaccharide-Neutralizing Regions of Guinea Pig Neutrophil Cathelicidin Peptide CAP11. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., August 1, 2006; 50(8): 2602 - 2607. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. Zelezetsky, A. Pontillo, L. Puzzi, N. Antcheva, L. Segat, S. Pacor, S. Crovella, and A. Tossi Evolution of the Primate Cathelicidin: CORRELATION BETWEEN STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS AND ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY J. Biol. Chem., July 21, 2006; 281(29): 19861 - 19871. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. C. Huang, T. D. Petkova, R. Y. Reins, R. J. Proske, and A. M. McDermott Multifunctional Roles of Human Cathelicidin (LL-37) at the Ocular Surface. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., June 1, 2006; 47(6): 2369 - 2380. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y. E. Lau, D. M. E. Bowdish, C. Cosseau, R. E. W. Hancock, and D. J. Davidson Apoptosis of Airway Epithelial Cells: Human Serum Sensitive Induction by the Cathelicidin LL-37 Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., April 1, 2006; 34(4): 399 - 409. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Mookherjee, K. L. Brown, D. M. E. Bowdish, S. Doria, R. Falsafi, K. Hokamp, F. M. Roche, R. Mu, G. H. Doho, J. Pistolic, et al. Modulation of the TLR-Mediated Inflammatory Response by the Endogenous Human Host Defense Peptide LL-37 J. Immunol., February 15, 2006; 176(4): 2455 - 2464. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Tokumaru, K. Sayama, Y. Shirakata, H. Komatsuzawa, K. Ouhara, Y. Hanakawa, Y. Yahata, X. Dai, M. Tohyama, H. Nagai, et al. Induction of Keratinocyte Migration via Transactivation of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor by the Antimicrobial Peptide LL-37 J. Immunol., October 1, 2005; 175(7): 4662 - 4668. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
