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c-Cbl Is Involved in Met Signaling in B Cells and Mediates Hepatocyte Growth Factor-Induced Receptor Ubiquitination

Taher E. I. Taher^1,*, Esther P. M. Tjin^1,*, Esther A. Beuling^*, Jannie Borst, Marcel Spaargaren^* and Steven T. Pals^2,*

^* Department of Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; and Department of Cellular Biochemistry, The Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

	Abstract

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Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF) and its receptor tyrosine kinase Met are key regulators of epithelial motility and morphogenesis. Recent studies indicate that the HGF/Met pathway also plays a role in B cell differentiation, whereas uncontrolled Met signaling may lead to B cell neoplasia. These observations prompted us to explore HGF/Met signaling in B cells. In this study, we demonstrate that HGF induces strong tyrosine phosphorylation of the proto-oncogene product c-Cbl in B cells and increases Cbl association with the Src family tyrosine kinases Fyn and Lyn, as well as with phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase and CrkL. In addition, we demonstrate that c-Cbl mediates HGF-induced ubiquitination of Met. This requires the juxtamembrane tyrosine Y1001 (Y2) of Met, but not the multifunctional docking site (Y14/15) or any additional C-terminal tyrosine residues (Y13–16). In contrast to wild-type c-Cbl, the transforming mutants v-Cbl and 70Z/3 Cbl, which lack the ubiquitin ligase RING finger domain, suppress Met ubiquitination. Our findings identify c-Cbl as a negative regulator of HGF/Met signaling in B cells, mediating ubiquitination and, consequently, proteosomal degradation of Met, and suggest a role for Cbl in Met-mediated tumorigenesis.

	Introduction

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Hepatocyte growth factor/scatter factor (HGF)³ is a multifunctional cytokine with a domain structure and proteolytic mechanism of activation similar to that of the serine protease plasminogen. By binding to the receptor tyrosine kinase Met, the product of the proto-oncogene c-met, HGF triggers intracellular signals regulating cell proliferation, migration, and survival (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). In mice, HGF or Met deficiency results in embryonic death due to severe developmental defects in the placenta and liver, and disrupts the migration of myogenic precursors into the limb buds (6, 9). Other studies have provided evidence for an important role of HGF in angiogenesis and in the three-dimensional organization of epithelial tissues, including kidney tubules and mammary glands (3, 4, 5). More recently, the HGF/Met pathway has also been implicated in B cell differentiation. Specifically, HGF produced by follicular dendritic cells or stromal cells has been shown to regulate integrin-mediated adhesion and migration of germinal center B cells and plasma cells (10, 11).

Apart from these physiologic functions, uncontrolled activation of Met is oncogenic and can promote tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis via several distinct mechanisms (3, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19). In hereditary papillary renal carcinoma, Met mutations cause hyperactivation of the receptor in response to HGF stimulation. These receptor mutants can mediate transformation, invasive growth, and protection from apoptosis (20, 21, 22, 23, 24). In B cell neoplasia, by contrast, auto- and/or paracrine stimulation of Met, rather than receptor mutation, appears to be the most important mechanism for transformation. It was recently demonstrated that HGF is a potent growth and survival factor for plasma cell myelomas (25). These tumors frequently coexpress HGF and Met, suggesting the presence of an autocrine loop (26). For HGF-negative myelomas, bone marrow stromal cells may present an alternative, paracrine, source of HGF (27). Similarly, HGF produced by follicular dendritic cells and stromal cells in lymphoid tissues may stimulate the growth and survival of Met-positive non-Hodgkins lymphomas (10, 11). Consistent with a role for HGF/Met in myeloma progression, patients with high serum levels of HGF have an unfavorable prognosis (28).

HGF/Met signaling has been extensively studied in epithelial cells. These studies revealed a prominent role for the multifunctional docking site, consisting of tyrosine residues Y1349 (Y14) and Y1356 (Y15) (3, 29). Upon phosphorylation, this docking site mediates the interaction with Grb2, resulting in activation of the Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. In addition, the docking protein Gab1 plays an important role in HGF/Met signaling as it is also able to interact directly with the docking site of Met, as well as with several signal-transducing proteins, including phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI-3K), CrkL, and SHP-2 (30, 31, 32). Despite the role of HGF/Met signaling in normal B cell differentiation and malignancy (3, 10, 11, 25, 26), hardly anything is known about the underlying signal transduction mechanism in B cells. Recently, we have reported the presence of two prominent phosphoproteins of 110 and 120 kDa after HGF stimulation of B cells (33), of which the 110-kDa phosphoprotein was identified as Gab1 (34). In the present study, we identify the other major phosphoprotein as c-Cbl, which is a prominent target for B cell Ag receptor signaling as well (35, 36, 37, 38). HGF induces a strong and transient tyrosine phosphorylation of c-Cbl, resulting in an increased association with Fyn, Lyn, PI-3K, and CrkL. In addition, we demonstrate that c-Cbl, but not its oncogenic forms v-Cbl or 70Z/3 Cbl, negatively regulates Met by inducing ubiquitination of its cytoplasmic domain.

	Materials and Methods

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Antibodies

mAbs used were anti-phosphotyrosine, PY20 (Affiniti, Nottingham, U.K.), and anti-hemagglutinin tag, 12CA5 (anti-HA) (C. de Vries, Department of Biochemistry, AMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands). The rabbit polyclonal Abs used were: anti-ubiquitin (DAKO, Glostrup, Denmark); anti-human Met, C-12; anti-mouse Met, SP260; anti-Fyn, FYN3; anti-Lyn, 44; anti-CrkL, C-20; anti-Cbl, C-15 (all: Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA); and anti-PI-3K p85 (Upstate Biotechnology, Lake Placid, NY).

Plasmids

The c-Cbl cDNA was a kind gift from W. Y. Langdon (University of Western Australia, Nedlands, Australia). pMT2-encoding HA-tagged human c-Cbl, v-Cbl, and 70Z/3 Cbl were generated from this cDNA by PCR. The constructs encoding Trk-Met (a chimeric receptor that consists of the extracellular domain of the nerve growth factor (NGF) receptor, Trk A, and the cytoplasmic domain of c-Met), either wild type (WT) or mutants of either tyrosine residue 1001 (Y2), 1232 and 1233 (kinase dead (KD)), 1347 (Y14), 1354 (Y15), 1347 and 1354 (Y14/15), or 1311, 1347, 1354, and 1363 (Y13–16), were a kind gift from W. Birchmeier (Max-Delbrueck-Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany) (39). pMT2-encoding HA-tagged ubiquitin was kindly provided by P. M. P. van Bergen en Henegouwen (Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands).

Cell lines and transfectants

The Burkitt’s lymphoma cell line Namalwa-V3M has been described (34). The cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 in the presence of 10% fetal clone I serum (HyClone Laboratories, Logan, UT) and 10% FCS (Integro, Zaandam, The Netherlands). COS-7 cells were maintained in DMEM containing 10% FCS. Using DEAE-dextran, COS-7 cells were transiently transfected with 1 µg construct encoding Trk-Met, alone or together with 2 µg construct containing either HA-tagged c-Cbl, the oncogenic 70Z/3 Cbl and v-Cbl, or ubiquitin.

Immunoprecipitation and Western blot analysis

Cells were lysed in buffer containing 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8), 150 mM NaCl, 1% Nonidet P-40, 10% glycerol, 10 µg/ml aprotinin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO), 10 µg/ml leupeptin (Sigma-Aldrich), 2 mM sodium orthovanadate, 5 mM EDTA, and 5 mM sodium fluoride. The lysates were cleared by centrifugation at 10,000 x g at 4°C for 20 min, followed by preclearance using protein A-Sepharose. The immunocomplexes were collected by adding the indicated Abs, precoupled to protein A-Sepharose, for at least 2 h. The immunoprecipitates were washed three times with lysis buffer, and the immunoprecipitated proteins were resolved by SDS-PAGE. The proteins were electrotransferred to nitrocellulose membranes. Detection of proteins by immunoblotting was performed using ECL lighting. For the immunodepletion experiments, the lysates were immunoprecipitated twice. The lysates remaining after the second immunodepletion and the immunoprecipitates obtained from the first immunoprecipitation were analyzed by Western blotting. Densitometric quantification analysis of Met was conducted on directly scanned images using National Institutes of Health Image 1.62 for Macintosh software. The protein levels of Met protein detected upon stimulation are expressed as a percentage of the amount of Met in unstimulated cells (100%). All values of Met have been adjusted for loading using extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) as control.

Immune complex kinase assays

The Cbl immune complexes from unstimulated or HGF-stimulated cells were washed three times with lysis buffer, followed by washing twice with kinase buffer (50 mM HEPES (pH 7.5), 10 mM MgCl, 10 mM MnCl, and 1 µM sodium orthovanadate), suspended in 20 µl kinase buffer containing 10 µCi [-³²P]ATP, and incubated for 30 min at room temperature. The proteins were separated on 10% SDS-PAGE, the gel was dried for 3 h, and the dried gel was autoradiographed at -80°C overnight.

	Results

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 
Cbl is strongly phosphorylated on tyrosine residues following HGF stimulation

We have recently demonstrated that activation of Met in Namalwa B cells leads to strong tyrosine phosphorylation of two proteins with molecular mass of 110–120 kDa (33, 34). The smaller of these proteins was shown to represent the Grb2-associated binder 1 (Gab1), an adaptor protein that can associate with the cytoplasmic docking site of Met (34). By performing immunodepletion experiments, we now identified the larger prominent phosphoprotein in the lysates of HGF-stimulated cells as c-Cbl (Fig. 1A). Immunoblotting of Cbl immunoprecipitates with Abs against phosphotyrosine confirmed that HGF stimulation leads to a rapid and transient phosphorylation of Cbl on tyrosine residues, peaking at 1 min and decreasing after 5 min (Fig. 1B).

View larger version (30K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 1. HGF induces tyrosine phosphorylation of Cbl. A, Cbl is a prominent tyrosine-phosphorylated protein in HGF-stimulated Namalwa cells. Cells were stimulated for 2 min with HGF. Total cell lysates of HGF-stimulated or control Namalwa B cells were immunodepleted or not with anti-Cbl (left), and their corresponding immunoprecipitates (right) were immunoblotted with anti-phosphotyrosine (anti-PY20). The arrows indicate the tyrosine-phosphorylated Cbl (upper panels). The blots were stripped and restained with anti-Cbl Abs, confirming equal loading of the immunoprecipitates and successful immunodepletion of c-Cbl from the total cell lysates (lower panels). B, Time kinetics of HGF-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of Cbl. Cells were stimulated with HGF for the indicated time periods. Immunoprecipitation was performed with anti-Cbl Abs, and immunoblots were stained with anti-PY20. The arrow indicates the tyrosine-phosphorylated Cbl (upper panel). Equal loading of the samples was confirmed by restaining the blot with anti-Cbl Abs (lower panel).

The above observations prompted us to explore the function of Cbl in Met signaling. Although Cbl itself lacks kinase activity, its characteristic modular structure enables it to act as a scaffold for various signaling molecules, including cytoplasmic tyrosine kinases (40). To determine whether HGF stimulation leads to changes in the kinase activity associated with Cbl, we conducted in vitro kinase assays. We observed that a low level of kinase activity was associated with Cbl immunoprecipitated from unstimulated B cells. However, HGF stimulation greatly increased the Cbl-associated kinase activity (Fig. 2). The 120-kDa in vitro phosphorylated protein present after stimulation with HGF represents c-Cbl itself, whereas the bands at 55–60 kDa may represent (auto) phosphorylated Src-family tyrosine kinases associated with c-Cbl. These kinases presumably are involved in the in vitro phosphorylation of c-Cbl and associated proteins.

View larger version (50K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 2. HGF stimulation induces an increase in the Cbl-associated kinase activity. Cbl immunoprecipitates collected from cells stimulated with HGF for the indicated time periods were phosphorylated in an in vitro kinase assay, as described in Materials and Methods. The arrow indicates the in vitro phosphorylated Cbl protein. The positions of prestained m.w. markers are indicated on the left side of the figure.

View larger version (42K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 3. HGF stimulation leads to increased association of Cbl with Fyn, Lyn, CrkL, and the p85 subunit of PI-3K. Namalwa B cells were stimulated with HGF for the indicated time. The cells were lysed, and immunoprecipitates were collected using the indicated Abs. A, Increased association with Lyn and Fyn. Lyn and Fyn immunoprecipitates were subjected to immunoblotting using anti-Cbl Abs (upper panels). B, Increased association with CrkL and PI-3K. Cbl immunoprecipitates were subjected to immunoblotting using anti-CrkL and anti-p85 Abs (PI-3K) (upper panels). Equal loading of the samples was confirmed by restaining the blots with the same Abs used for immunoprecipitation (lower panels).

The prominent phosphorylation of Cbl in response to HGF stimulation (Fig. 1), combined with the recent observation that Cbl acts as an E3 ubiquitin ligase for the epidermal growth factor (EGF) and platelet-derived growth factor receptors (41, 42), suggests that Cbl might be involved in the ubiquitination and degradation of Met. To adress this hypothesis, we first assessed whether Met on B cells is ubiquitinated in response to HGF stimulation. Hence, Met immunoprecipitates from HGF-stimulated cells were analyzed for ubiquitination by immunoblotting. We observed that HGF stimulation leads to a rapid ubiquitination of c-Met, which was maximal at 5 min (Fig. 4A). Because the ubiquitination machinery adds multiple and variable numbers of ubiquitin moieties to a single target molecule, the polyubiquitinated Met species is detected as a smear rather than a distinct band (Fig. 4A). In addition to inducing ubiquitination, HGF stimulation also resulted in degradation of Met, which was clearly detectable from 5–10 min of incubation onward (Fig. 4, B and C). Hence, HGF stimulation of B cells leads to both ubiquitination and degradation of Met.

View larger version (22K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 4. HGF stimulation induces ubiquitination and degradation of Met in B cells. A, HGF induces ubiquitination of Met. Namalwa B cells were stimulated with HGF for the indicated time. Anti-Met (C12) immunoprecipitates were immunoblotted with anti-ubiquitin Abs (upper panel) or, as a loading control, with anti-Met Abs (lower panel). B, HGF induces degradation of Met. Namalwa B cells were incubated in the presence or absence of HGF for the indicated time. Cell lysates were immunoblotted with anti-Met Abs (upper panel) or, as a loading control, with anti-ERK1 Abs (lower panel). C, The protein levels of Met in 4B were analyzed by densitometric quantification and, after correction using ERK as loading control, presented as the amount of Met protein relative to unstimulated cells (100%).

View larger version (38K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 5. c-Cbl, but not the oncogenic Cbl variants v-Cbl and 70Z Cbl, mediates ubiquitination of Met. A, c-Cbl, but not v-Cbl, mediates Met ubiquitination. COS-7 cells were transfected with Trk-Met plus either c-Cbl or v-Cbl and stimulated with NGF for the indicated time periods. Anti-Met immunoprecipitates (SP260) were immunoblotted with anti-ubiquitin Abs (upper panel). As a control for equal Met transfection and immunoprecipitation, the blot was restained with anti-Met Abs (SP260) (lower panel). Right panel, The total cell lysates were immunoblotted with anti-HA Abs to demonstrate equal expression of c-Cbl and v-Cbl. B, 70Z/3 Cbl is dominant negative in Met ubiquitination. COS-7 cells were transfected with Trk-Met in the absence or presence of 70Z/3 Cbl and stimulated with NGF for the indicated time periods. Anti-Met immunoprecipitates (SP260) were immunoblotted with anti-ubiquitin Abs (upper panel). As a control for equal Met transfection and immunoprecipitation, the blot was restained with anti-Met Abs (SP260) (lower panel). Right panel, The total cell lysates were immunoblotted with anti-HA Abs to demonstrate expression of 70Z/3 Cbl.

Upon stimulation by HGF, the C terminus of Met is strongly phosphorylated on tyrosine residues. Autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues 1349 (Y14) and 1356 (Y15) of Met is critical for most biological responses (29, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47). These tyrosine residues serve as a multisubstrate docking site for several proteins, including Gab1, Grb2, PI-3K, phospholipase C, Src, Shc, SHP-2, and STAT-3. To assess whether this site is also involved in transducing signals leading to Met ubiquitination, we used Trk-Met mutated at Y14 and/or Y15. Whereas mutation of the kinase-regulatory tyrosines 1234 (Y8) and 1235 (Y9), which gives rise to a kinase dead Trk-Met (KD), resulted in a total abrogation of ligand-induced autophosphorylation and ubiquitination (Fig. 6A), NGF stimulation still resulted in a clear ubiquitination of the single (either Y14 or Y15) as well as double mutant (Y14/15) (Fig. 6B). This demonstrates that Y14 and Y15 are not required for Cbl-mediated ubiquitination of Met (Fig. 6B). This result was not due to functional redundancy by the presence of the tyrosines 1313 (Y13) and 1363 (Y16), as a Trk-Met mutant containing mutations in Y13–16, i.e., all four autophosphorylated residues of Met C-terminal of the kinase domain, was still readily ubiquitinated upon stimulation with ligand (Fig. 6C). Given this unexpected result, combined with the observed gain-of-function effect as a consequence of its mutation, i.e., the transition of epithelial cells to a fibroblastoid phenotype (39), we hypothesized that the juxtamembrane tyrosine residue Y1001 (Y2) might play an important role in Met ubiquitination. Interestingly, mutation of Y2 indeed resulted in the complete loss of ligand-induced Cbl-mediated ubiquitination of Met (Fig. 6D).

View larger version (30K): [in this window] [in a new window]   FIGURE 6. The juxtamembrane tyrosine residue 1001 (Y2) of Met, but not the docking site, is required for ligand-induced receptor ubiquitination by Cbl. A, Tyrosine phosphorylation and ubiquitination of Trk-Met and Trk-Met KD. COS-7 cells, transfected with either WT or KD Trk-Met, were stimulated with NGF for 5 or 10 min. Met was immunoprecipitated with anti-Met (SP260), and the blot was stained with anti-phosphotyrosine (PY20) (top panel) and subsequently stripped and reprobed with anti-Met (B2) as a control (second panel). In parallel, COS-7 cells were transfected with the indicated Trk-Met constructs together with HA-tagged ubiquitin and HA-tagged c-Cbl. Anti-Met immunoprecipitates were immunoblotted with anti-HA Abs to detect Met ubiquitination (third panel), or as a control for equal Met transfection and immunoprecipitation, the blot was restained with anti-Met Abs (fourth panel), and, as a control for the c-Cbl transfection, total cell lysates were blotted with anti-HA Abs (bottom panel). B, Mutation of Y14, Y15, or both (Y14/15) of Trk-Met does not prevent ligand-induced receptor ubiquitination by Cbl. COS-7 cells were transfected with the indicated Trk-Met mutant constructs together with c-Cbl. Unstimulated or NGF-stimulated cells were subjected to immunoprecipitation using anti-Met Abs and immunoblotted with anti-ubiquitin Abs (upper panel), and, as a control, the blot was restained with anti-Met Abs (lower panel). C, Trk-Met mutated at tyrosines Y13–16 is ubiquitinated upon ligand stimulation. Immunoprecipitates of Met from COS-7 cells, transfected with either Y14/15 or Y13–16 Trk-Met mutant together with HA-tagged ubiquitin and HA-tagged c-Cbl, were immunoblotted with anti-HA Abs to detect Met ubiquitination (top panel), and the blot was reprobed with anti-Met Abs to demonstrate equal transfection and immunoprecipitation (middle panel). In addition, total cell lysates were blotted with anti-HA Abs to show equal transfection and expression of HA-tagged Cbl (bottom panel). D, Y2 of Met is required for Cbl-mediated ubiquitination. Immunoprecipitates of Met from unstimulated or NGF-stimulated COS-7 cells, transfected with either WT or a Y2 mutant of Trk-Met together with HA-tagged ubiquitin and HA-tagged c-Cbl, were immunoblotted with anti-HA Abs to detect Met ubiquitination (top panel), and the blot was reprobed with anti-Met Abs to demonstrate equal transfection and immunoprecipitation (middle panel). In addition, total cell lysates were blotted with anti-HA Abs to confirm equal transfection and expression of HA-tagged Cbl (bottom panel).

	Discussion

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

Our observation that HGF stimulation leads to an enhanced association of Cbl with PI-3K as well as with CrkL is of considerable interest. PI-3K is a central regulator of different biological processes induced by HGF, including adhesion and survival, and a specific PI-3K docking site has been located on Y1349 of Met (34). Our present findings suggest that association of PI-3K with Cbl (Fig. 3) might represent an alternative route for the regulation of PI-3K activity by HGF. CrkL is an adaptor protein with two Src homology 3 domains, which can specifically bind to the guanine exchange factor C3G, an activator of Rap-1 (54). Formation of a Cbl-Crk-C3G complex may provide a mechanism for coupling Met with the Rap-1 pathway, which has been implicated in integrin activation (55). Interestingly, we have recently shown that HGF induces activation of integrins in B cells (10). Cbl may play a critical role in this HGF-induced integrin activation, as suppression of Cbl expression by antisense Cbl resulted in a marked decrease in integrin activation (55, 56, 57).

Receptor ubiquitination and consequent degradation by the proteosomal/lysosomal pathway constitute an integral part of the regulation of receptor protein tyrosine kinase function (41, 58, 59, 60). Indeed, we observed that, following stimulation of B cells with HGF, Met is ubiquitinated and degraded (Fig. 4). This observation confirms and extends observations by Jeffers et al. (61), who reported HGF-induced degradation and polyubiquitination of Met in epithelial cells. Importantly, we now demonstrate that Cbl plays a key role in the negative regulation of Met signaling, by mediating receptor ubiquitination (Fig. 5). A number of studies have identified Cbl as an important negative regulator of protein tyrosine kinases. In Caenorhabditis elegans, the Cbl homologue SLI-1 was shown to inhibit vulva development mediated by LET-23, a homologue of the mammalian EGFR (62), whereas overexpression of Cbl in mammalian cells inhibits activation of the EGF and platelet-derived growth factor receptors and Janus kinase-STAT (63, 64, 65). Recently, in vitro studies revealed that the c-Cbl has intrinsic E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase activity (60). The RING finger domain of Cbl is critical for this regulatory function, as mutants of Cbl, containing a complete (v-Cbl) or partial (70Z/3 Cbl) deletion, or a point mutation (Cys381-Ala) in the RING finger domain, are defective in promoting receptor tyrosine kinase ubiquitination. Indeed, also in our present study, the oncogenic mutants v-Cbl and 70Z/3 Cbl failed to induce ubiquitination of Met, but rather had a dominant-negative effect on the ubiquitination induced by endogenous Cbl (Fig. 5). This is further supported by the recent finding that expression of 70Z/3 Cbl in Madin-Darby canine kidney cells results in an epithelial-mesenchymal transition, which resembles the effect of HGF stimulation (49). Thus, expression of these oncogenic mutants of Cbl might result in overexpression and constitutive activation of Met, leading to Met-mediated tumorigenesis.

The tyrosine residues Y14 and Y15 play a critical role in virtually all Met-mediated biological responses. These residues serve as docking sites for multiple signaling molecules, including Gab1, Grb2, PI-3K, phospholipase C, Src, Shc, SHP-2, and STAT-3 (29, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47). Interestingly, we observed that this multisubstrate docking site of Met is not required for ubiquitination by Cbl. Mutation of neither the tyrosines Y14 and/or Y15, nor of all autophosphorylated residues in the C-terminal domain of Met, i.e., Y13–16, interfered with NGF-induced ubiquitination of Trk-Met (Fig. 6, B and C). By contrast, Met ubiquitination was dependent on the integrity of the juxtamembrane tyrosine residue Y2 (Fig. 6D). These data support a recent study that demonstrated a role for Cbl and Y2 in ligand-independent ubiquitination of Met (66). In addition, in this study we have shown that Cbl and Y2 are also critical in Met ubiquitination induced by ligand (Figs. 5 and 6D), that the oncogenic mutants 70Z/3 Cbl and v-Cbl act in a dominant-negative fashion (Fig. 5), and that ubiquitination of Met does not depend on its C-terminal tyrosine residues (Y13–16), which include the docking site of Met (Y14/15) (Fig. 6, B and C). Previously, it has been reported that mutation of residue Y2 of Met leads to a gain-of-function resulting in constitutive scattering and fibroblastoid morphology of epithelial cells (39). Our data suggest that this may be due to a defect in Cbl-mediated Met ubiquitination. In addition, although most germline and sporadic Met mutations in human tumors involve the kinase domain and result in enhanced kinase activity upon stimulation with ligand (20, 21, 22), recently mutations have also been reported in the juxtamembrane portion of Met (24). Met carrying such a missense mutation at P1009S (P989 in mouse) was not constitutively active, but showed increased and persistent Met phosphorylation after HGF treatment. This activating mutation is localized in a PEST (amino acid residues Pro, Glu, and/or Asp, Ser, and Thr)-like sequence, which has been implicated in ubiquitination (24). Hence, tyrosine Y2 and adjacent sequences in the juxtamembrane domain of Met appear to play a critical role in the negative regulation of Met by Cbl. Taken together, these findings identify Cbl as negative regulator of Met and suggest that defects in this negative regulation, caused by mutations in either Cbl or Met, may contribute to tumorigenesis.

	Acknowledgments

 
We thank Lia Smit and Esther Schilder-Tol for technical assistance, and Gerda van der Horst for generation of the Cbl constructs. We are also grateful to Dr. Martin Sachs and Dr. Walter Birchmeier for kindly providing the Trk-Met constructs, and Dr. Paul M. P. van Bergen en Henegouwen for the ubiquitin construct.

	Footnotes

 
¹ T.E.I.T. and E.P.M.T. contributed equally to this manuscript.

² Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Steven T. Pals, Department of Pathology, Academic Medical Center, University Of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands. E-mail address: S.T.Pals{at}AMC.UVA.NL

³ Abbreviations used in this paper: HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; EGF, epidermal growth factor; ERK, extracellular signal-regulated kinase; HA, hemagglutinin; KD, kinase dead; NGF, nerve growth factor; PI-3K, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase; WT, wild type.

Received for publication February 6, 2002. Accepted for publication July 29, 2002.

	References

Top Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results Discussion References

 

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