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Center for Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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1-deficient mice are used as
recipients for the adoptively transferred CD8 T cells, demonstrating
that the IL-12 is acting directly on the T cells rather than on host
APC. These results provide strong support for a three-signal model for
in vivo activation of naive CD8 T cells by peptide Ag, in which the
presence or absence of the third signal determines whether tolerance or
activation occurs. In contrast, memory CD8 T cells are effectively
activated by peptide Ag in the absence of IL-12 or
adjuvant. |
Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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With the ability to readily identify potential CD8 T cell epitopes in viral and tumor proteins, tremendous interest has developed in how to use these to effectively immunize for CD8-mediated protection and therapy. In most cases, effective in vivo activation of T cell responses with protein or peptide Ag requires that the Ag be delivered along with adjuvants (6, 7, 8). Adjuvants act, at least in part, to optimize delivery of signals 1 and 2 to T cells by activating DC to increase expression of MHC/Ag complexes and costimulatory ligands (9, 10), and migration to lymphoid organs where the Ag can be presented to T cells (11, 12). Adjuvants also stimulate APC to produce a variety of cytokines that can shape T cell responses once they have been initiated. However, recent evidence has suggested that cytokines may not only shape the response but may also be critical for initiating productive T cell responses by providing a third signal that must be present along with TCR engagement and costimulation. Studies of the minimal requirements for in vitro activation of CD8 T cells demonstrated that naive cells require this third signal to clonally expand and develop effector functions, while memory cells do not (13). Memory CD8 T cells from TCR-transgenic mice could be effectively stimulated with IL-2 and microspheres having class I/peptide Ag complexes on the surface, or with microspheres having class I/peptide Ag and B7 ligands on the surface. In contrast, naive CD8 T cells from the same mice could not respond to these stimuli, but responded strongly if IL-12 was also added to the cultures. Because the CD8 T cells were the only cells present in these cultures, it could be concluded that IL-12 was acting directly on the T cells to provide an essential signal for activation. Although numerous studies have demonstrated that IL-12 can augment or enhance CTL responses (14, 15), the critical dependence of naive cells on this third signal had not been appreciated. This was due in part to the fact that even small numbers of APC in cultures can obscure the dependence of the naive cells on this signal. Furthermore, in most studies it could not be determined whether the IL-12 was acting directly on the T cell or whether it was acting on other cells in the culture, e.g., to enhance Ag presentation or costimulation.
The dependence of naive CD8 T cells on IL-12 for an in vitro response raised the possibility that one of the contributions of adjuvants to in vivo CD8 T cell priming by Ag was through stimulating DC to produce IL-12 or some alternate third signal. In fact, we found that administration of peptide Ag and IL-12 was as effective as peptide and CFA for stimulating clonal expansion, development of effector function, and establishment of a long-lived memory population by adoptively transferred CD8 T cells having a TCR specific for the peptide (16). In contrast, administration of just the peptide resulted in only weak clonal expansion, and the cells were rendered tolerant. Thus, IL-12 was sufficient to convert a tolerizing dose of peptide Ag to an immunizing dose. These results were consistent with the possibility that IL-12 was providing a third signal to the CD8 T cells in vivo but did not directly demonstrate that this was the case or rule out the possibility that IL-12 was having its effect on host APC. In this report we describe the results of experiments that provide strong evidence that in vivo activation of naive CD8 T cells by peptide Ag does, in fact, require three signals: Ag, costimulation (IL-2), and IL-12 (or other cytokine). This three-signal model for CD8 T cell activation has important implications for understanding whether cross-priming by DC leads to tolerance vs priming for effective immunity, and whether tolerance or autoimmunity result from recognition of self-Ag. In contrast to naive cells, peptide Ag can effectively activate memory CD8 T cells in vivo without a third signal, i.e., without addition of IL-12 or adjuvant, suggesting one way in which a memory response can be mounted more rapidly than a primary response.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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2C TCR-transgenic mice (17) were a kind gift from
Dr. D. Loh (Washington University, St. Louis, MO) and were bred to
wild-type C57BL/6 mice to generate mice heterozygous for the 2C TCR
transgene. CD8+ T cells from these mice were used
as donors in all adoptive transfer experiments, and C57BL/6 mice
(Charles River Breeding Laboratories, Wilmington, MA), ICAM-1 knockout
(KO) mice (C57BL/6J-Icam1tm1Bay), CD4 KO mice
(C57BL/6J-CD4M1Mak), and IL-12R1 KO mice
(B6.129S1-Il12rb1tm1Jm; The Jackson Laboratory,
Bar Harbor, ME) (18) were used as recipients. All mice
were housed in a specific pathogen-free environment at all times.
Antibodies
The 1B2 mAb, specific for the transgenic 2C TCR, was from the
1B2 hybridoma (19) (a gift from Dr. H. Eisen,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA) grown in complete
RPMI medium (RPMI 1640; Cellgro, Herndon, VA) with 10% FCS (Tissue
Culture Biologicals, Tulare, CA), 0.2% L-glutamine, 0.1%
penicillin/streptomycin, 0.1% HEPES (BioWhittaker, Walkersville, MD),
0.1% nonessential amino acids, 0.1% sodium pyruvate (Cellgro), and
0.05% 2-ME. The 1B2 mAb was purified from supernatants using a protein
A-Sepharose column. Anti-mouse IL-2 (clone S4B6; American Type Culture
Collection, Manassas, VA) and CTLA4-Ig (a gift from Dr. R. J.
Evans, Searle, St. Louis, MO) cultures were also grown in complete RPMI
medium, and Abs were purified using a protein G-Sepharose column with
elution by 50 mM glycine at pH 2.5. ChromPure whole molecule rat IgG
(Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories, West Grove, PA) was used as an in
vivo Ab control. Other Abs used were anti-CD44-FITC (Pgp1),
anti-CD25-FITC, anti-CD8
-CyChrome,
streptavidin-allophycocyanin, and rat IgG2a 
-FITC isotype control
(all from BD PharMingen, San Diego, CA).
Adoptive transfer of 2C-transgenic cells
Pooled lymph node (LN) cells (axillary, brachial, cervical, inguinal, periaortic, and mesenteric) from 2C-transgenic mice were ammonium chloride-treated to remove RBC and adherence-depleted for 90 min. The nonadherent cells were washed in PBS and enriched for CD8+ cells by negative selection using the CD8+ Cellect column purification kit (Biotex Laboratories, Edmonton, Canada) or MACS magnetic separation columns (Miltenyi Biotec, Auburn, CA). Before transfer, the purified population was analyzed by flow cytometry to determine the percentage of 1B2+CD8+ cells and their phenotype with respect to CD25, CD44, and forward scatter (FSC) to insure that the transferred population was not activated. A total of 3–5 x 106 1B2+CD8+ cells in 500 µl PBS was transferred via tail vein injection into age- and sex-matched naive 6- to 8-wk-old recipients. Recipient mice were then rested for 24 h before immunizations.
Immunizations
The synthetic peptide SIYRYYGL (20) (Chiron Mimotopes, Clayton, Victoria, Australia) was prepared in PBS and injected alone or emulsified in CFA (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO). All peptide immunizations were done on day 0 by s.c. injection of 50 µg peptide in 300 µl in two sites on the back. Recombinant murine IL-12 (Genetics Institute, Cambridge, MA) was administered i.p. at 1 µg (2.7 x 103 ± 1.2 x 103 U/µg) in 100 µl PBS with 0.1% sterile mouse serum on days 0, 1, and 2. Anti-mouse IL-2 Abs (clone S4B6; American Type Culture Collection) were administered i.p. at 1 mg in 100 µl PBS on days -1, 0, and 1. CTLA4-Ig was administered i.p. at 200 µg in 100 µl PBS 6 h before day 0 and then on days 0, 1, and 2. As controls, transferred animals were also immunized with PBS alone (transfer only) or whole molecule rat IgG (Jackson ImmunoResearch Laboratories).
Flow cytometric analysis of in vivo populations
Transferred and immunized mice were sacrificed at varying times
after priming or rechallenge, and the LN and spleen were removed,
homogenized, and ammonium chloride-treated to lyse RBCs. PBL was drawn
from the heart using a heparin-loaded syringe, and the RBCs were lysed
by ammonium chloride treatment. Brachial, axillary, and inguinal LNs
were pooled as draining LN (DLN). Each cell population (DLN, spleen,
and PBL) was counted for total cell number using trypan blue to exclude
dead cells. Isolated cells (1–2 x 106)
from each site were stained with 1B2-biotin mAb,
anti-CD8-CyChrome, and either anti-CD44-FITC (Pgp1) or
anti-CD25-FITC. After 20–30 min of incubation, cells were washed
and streptavidin-allophycocyanin was added for detection of 1B2-biotin.
Stained cells were fixed with 1% formaldehyde and analyzed by flow
cytometry using the CellQuest software package (BD Biosciences, San
Jose, CA) as described (21). All cytometer settings were
identical for all time points within a given experiment. A total of
35–40 x 103 lymphocyte-gated events were
collected and analyzed, and the percentage of
1B2+CD8+ cells was
multiplied by the total number of cells recovered from the site to
determine the total number of
1B2+CD8+ cells. All
determinations were done in duplicate mice for each condition and time
point. Values shown in figures are averages and error bars
represent the range of the duplicates. Phenotypes of the 2C cells from
various sites were determined by gating on the
1B2+CD8+ cells and
collecting 200 events examining the FITC fluorescence of the various
phenotype marker mAbs. Gates denoting high and low expression of each
surface marker were set based on the phenotype of naive T cells.
Replacing the specific mAbs with isotype control mAbs resulted in
almost no events (<1%) falling into the high gate for each
marker.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Using adoptive transfer of 2C TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells that recognize the synthetic peptide SIYRYYGL in the context of H-2Kb (17, 20, 21), we previously showed that administration of IL-12 along with peptide was as effective as administration of peptide in CFA for activating 2C cells to undergo clonal expansion, develop effector function, and establish a long-lived responsive memory population (16). In contrast, administering peptide alone resulted in only weak clonal expansion and no detectable effector function. Furthermore, these cells were rendered tolerant; they persisted in small numbers for at least 60 days but did not expand when the mice were rechallenged with peptide and either CFA or IL-12.
This same adoptive transfer system was used in the experiments described in this work to further study the adjuvant effects of IL-12 and determine whether the properties of this response support a three-signal model to explain in vivo CD8 T cell activation. Activation of adoptively transferred 2C cells clearly requires signal 1; without peptide immunization the cells do not up-regulate activation markers or undergo cell division (13, 16, 21). However, it was possible that IL-12 might be bypassing or substituting for a requirement for signal 2. One way in which this might occur is by IL-12 activating recipient CD4+ T cells or skewing endogenously activated CD4+ T cells to a Th1 phenotype (15), so that they can then provide help to the CD8 cells by providing IL-2 or by some other means. We examined this possibility in experiments using CD4 KO mice as recipients of the adoptively transferred 2C cells. 2C T cells (3–5 x 106) were injected i.v. into naive age- and sex-matched C57BL/6 or CD4 KO recipients, and the mice were immunized 1 day later. Responding 2C populations were monitored using the anti-clonotypic 1B2 mAb (19) and anti-CD8 mAb for flow cytometric analysis. The 1B2+CD8+ 2C population comprises <1% of the LN cells 1 day after transfer and before immunization (16, 21). Day 3 postimmunization was chosen for the analyses based on time course experiments showing that maximal clonal expansion of 2C cells in the DLN (inguinal, brachial, and axillary) occurs at this time (Ref. 16 and data not shown). To confirm that the 2C CD8+ T cell response to IL-12 and peptide immunization was specific for the SIYRYYGL peptide, adoptively transferred mice were also immunized with an equal amount of SIINFEKL, an OVA peptide that is also bound by H-2Kb (22). The 2C CD8+ T cells in these mice remained essentially the same in both absolute numbers and phenotype as those found in transferred mice that received just PBS (data not shown).
One day after transfer, mice were immunized with PBS (transfer only
group) or with SIYRYYGL peptide (50 µg/mouse s.c. distributed between
two sites on the back) in the presence or absence of IL-12. This amount
of SIYRYYGL resulted in optimal 2C responses as shown by dose response
studies (data not shown). IL-12 (1 µg/day, 2.7 x
103 ± 1.2 x 103
U/µg) was administered i.p. on days 0, 1, and 2 in 100 µl PBS with
0.1% sterile mouse serum. As shown in Fig. 1
, immunization with peptide alone
resulted in weak but reproducible clonal expansion of the 2C cells in
the DLN by day 3, and the magnitude of the expansion was comparable in
normal and CD4-/- recipients. The majority of
2C cells in these mice exhibited an activated phenotype, including
increased CD44 levels and high FSC indicative of blast transformation
(data not shown). In contrast, immunization with peptide in the
presence of IL-12 resulted in massive clonal expansion, and this was
also comparable in normal and CD4 KO recipients (Fig. 1). Again, the
majority of the 2C cells expressed high CD44 levels and high FSC (data
not shown). Administration of IL-12 without peptide had no detectable
effects on adoptively transferred 2C cells (Ref. 13 and
data not shown). Thus, host CD4+ T cells are not
required for the adjuvant effect of IL-12 in the response of 2C cells
to peptide Ag and make no detectable contribution to the response.
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To determine whether costimulation to provide signal 2 is required for the 2C response to peptide and IL-12, experiments were done to examine the effects of blocking two of the major costimulatory pathways for CD8 T cells, CD28/B7 and LFA/ICAM-1. These costimulatory interactions are required, at least in part, for the production of IL-2 that is then used in an autocrine and/or paracrine fashion (3). Either the CD28 or LFA-1 pathway can costimulate Ag-dependent IL-2 production by CD8 T cells, and engagement of both receptors synergistically increases the level of IL-2 produced by the cells in vitro (23).
The contribution of CD28/B7 interactions to the response to peptide Ag
and IL-12 was examined by administering CTLA4-Ig to block these
interactions. CTLA4-Ig binds to B7-1 and B7-2 with high affinity and
prevents CD28 from binding to them (24). Normal C57BL/6
mice were adoptively transferred with 2C cells and immunized with PBS
(transfer only), SIYRYYGL peptide, SIYRYYGL and IL-12, or SIYRYYGL and
IL-12 along with CTLA4-Ig. Peptide alone caused a small increase in the
number of 2C cells in the DLN, spleen, and PBL on day 3, and a large
clonal expansion was seen at all sites when IL-12 was given along with
peptide (Fig. 2). One group of mice
received CTLA4-Ig (200 µg/dose in 100 µl PBS injected i.p.) 6
h before immunization and again on days 0, 1, and 2 for a total of 800
µg per mouse. Clonal expansion was reduced 5- to 6-fold at all sites
in these mice in comparison to mice that received just peptide and
IL-12 (Fig. 2). Although clonal expansion was greatly reduced by
CTLA4-Ig treatment, some expansion still occurred in comparison to that
in mice that received just peptide. The 2C cells that did expand in the
CTLA4-Ig treated mice had essentially the same phenotype as those in
the mice that received just peptide and IL-12, having high CD44
expression (56% CD44 with CTLA4-Ig and 65% CD44 without), high FSC
(59% with CTLA4-Ig and 70% without) and high CD25 (62% with CTLA4-Ig
and 56% without). Thus, blocking CD28/B7 interactions greatly reduces
2C T cell clonal expansion in response to peptide and IL-12, strongly
suggesting that this response remains dependent on signal 2 being
provided by this costimulatory pathway.
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B), but
the magnitude of the expansion was substantially reduced in comparison
to that in normal mice. The extent of clonal expansion at all sites was
further reduced when CTLA4-Ig was administered to
ICAM-1-/- mice immunized with peptide and IL-12
(Fig. 2B). The phenotypes of the 2C cells were essentially
identical in normal C57BL/6 and ICAM-1-/-
recipients with respect to CD44, CD25, and FSC. Reduced responses in
the ICAM-I-/- mice suggests that the
LFA-I/ICAM-I pathway may make a significant costimulatory contribution
to the response to peptide and IL-12. Furthermore, the large reduction
seen when either the CD28 (Fig. 2A) or LFA-1 (Fig. 2B) pathways are blocked, and the further reduction that
occurs when both are blocked (Fig. 2B), suggest that these
pathways may synergize in providing costimulation for the 2C response,
as has been observed in vitro (23). However, the results
obtained using ICAM-1-/- mice must be
interpreted with caution, because absence of this ligand may also
affect lymphocyte trafficking. Together, these results demonstrate that
the adjuvant effect of IL-12 does not bypass a need for costimulation.
Rather, the IL-12-dependent response to peptide Ag clearly depends upon
costimulation provided by the CD28/B7 pathway, and the LFA-1/ICAM-I
pathway may make a synergistic contribution to the costimulation. Endogenous IL-2 contributes to the response to peptide Ag and IL-12
Costimulatory interactions between T cells and APC stimulate
production of IL-2 by T cells, which then supports proliferation and
development of effector function. The dependence of the response to
peptide and IL-12 on costimulation suggested that the response also
depends upon IL-2, and this was examined in experiments using
neutralizing anti-IL-2 mAb. Mice were adoptively transferred with
2C cells and immunized, with some groups receiving anti-mouse IL-2
mAb (1 mg/day in 100 µl PBS i.p.) on days -1, 0, and 1, and the DLN
and spleen were analyzed on day 3 to determine 2C cell numbers and
phenotypes. The administration of anti-IL-2 mAb caused a
significant reduction in total 2C CD8+ T cell
numbers in the day 3 DLN when either CFA or IL-12 was used as the
adjuvant (Fig. 3A). When CFA
is used as the adjuvant, the 2C response is largely confined to the DLN
and little clonal expansion is seen in the spleen on day 3 (Fig. 3B), probably due to the sequestration of Ag to the local
site by the mineral oil in CFA. In contrast, a large clonal expansion
is seen in the spleen on day 3 when IL-12 is used as the adjuvant (Fig. 3B), and mice treated with anti-IL-2 mAb also exhibited
a substantial decrease in clonal expansion at this site (Fig. 3B). Administration of control rat IgG to mice had no
detectable effects on clonal expansion at any sites (data not
shown).
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) and was less effective than blocking CD28/B7 or
LFA-1/ICAM-I interactions (Fig. 2). It is difficult to completely block
IL-2 effects with Ab in vivo, probably due to the autocrine nature of
the response making it difficult to neutralize the IL-2 produced by a
cell before it binds the IL-2R of the same cell. Phenotypic analysis
revealed no significant differences in the 2C cells that responded in
the absence or presence of the anti-IL-2 mAb (data not shown).
These results demonstrate that IL-2 contributes to the 2C
CD8+ T cell response when IL-12 is the adjuvant.
Thus, signal 2 is clearly required for a 2C cell response to
IL-12/peptide (Fig. 2), and this second signal involves, at least in
part, the production and use of IL-2. IL-12 provides a third signal to naive CD8+ T cells
In vitro studies demonstrated that IL-12 could act as a distinct
third signal for activating CD8 T cells to proliferate and develop
effector function by acting directly on the T cells (13).
The adjuvant effects of IL-12 are consistent with its having this role
in vivo, but the in vivo effects could potentially result from other
mechanisms such as up-regulation of class I MHC proteins or
costimulatory molecules on host APC. To examine this, the responses of
adoptively transferred 2C cells were examined in IL-12R1 KO mice
(18). In this situation host cells lack functional
IL-12Rs, and effects of IL-12 on the response must result from IL-12
binding to the IL-12Rs expressed by the 2C cells themselves.
For these experiments 2C LN cells were adherence cell-depleted and
enriched for CD8+ cells using negative selection
columns (85–90% CD8+) before the transfer into
normal C57BL/6 or IL-121 KO recipients. Groups of recipient mice
were immunized on day 0 with PBS (transfer only), peptide only, or
peptide and IL-12, and the number of 2C cells in the DLN and spleen was
determined on day 3. As expected, peptide alone stimulated weak clonal
expansion in the normal mice, and coadministration of IL-12 resulted in
strong clonal expansion in both DLN and spleen (Fig. 4). The response to peptide alone was
comparable in the IL-121 KO recipients, and there was a small but
significant reduction in the response to peptide and IL-12 (Fig. 4).
Essentially identical results were obtained in two independent
experiments. The responding 2C cells in C57BL/6 and IL-12R1 KO mice
were indistinguishable with respect to CD44, CD25, and FSC levels (data
not shown). Thus, the major effect of IL-12 in supporting clonal
expansion of Ag-specific CD8+ T cells appears to
occur via provision of a third signal directly to the T cell.
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In vitro studies of CD8 T cell activation using latex microspheres with class I/peptide Ag on the surface as the stimulus demonstrated that naive (CD44low) cells could only proliferate and develop lytic effector function when both IL-2 (or B7 costimulation) and IL-12 were provided (13). In contrast, memory cells (CD44high) were effectively stimulated to proliferate and develop lytic effector function in response to just Ag and IL-2 (25), and addition of IL-12 caused only about a 2-fold increase in the response (data not shown). Thus, naive cells required a third signal provided by IL-12 while memory cells responded well in the absence of a third signal, and the response was only weakly augmented when IL-12 was present.
The in vitro results predicted that the in vivo response of memory
cells to peptide Ag might not require adjuvant or IL-12, and this was
tested in the 2C adoptive transfer system. Mice received 2C cells by
adoptive transfer and were then primed with either PBS, peptide plus
CFA, or peptide plus IL-12. After at least 60 days the mice were
rechallenged as indicated (Fig. 5), and 3
days later the numbers and phenotypes of 2C cells in the DLN were
determined. 2C cells in control mice given just PBS during priming and
rechallenge were present in small but detectable numbers and the
majority retained a naive, resting phenotype
(CD44lowCD25lowFSClow).
As was previously shown (16), priming with peptide along
with either CFA or IL-12 resulted in establishment of a long-term
memory population; 2C cells were present in larger numbers than in mice
that had received just PBS during priming and the majority had a
resting memory phenotype
(CD44highCD25lowFSClow).
When 2C cells are labeled with PKH26 lipophilic dye before adoptive
transfer and challenge with peptide and CFA or IL-12, the fluorescence
of all of the cells decreases greatly within 8 days, demonstrating that
all of the cells have undergone multiple rounds of division (Ref.
16 and data not shown). Thus, no detectable naive 2C cells
remain following the priming protocol used in this study to establish
memory populations.
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), and a large fraction of these
cells had high FSC on day 3, indicating that they were proliferating
(data not shown). Rechallenge with peptide plus CFA resulted in
comparable expansion of the 2C population, and rechallenge with peptide
plus IL-12 resulted in only about twice as many 2C cells (Fig. 5).
Thus, unlike primary responses where CFA or IL-12 dramatically increase
clonal expansion in comparison to peptide alone (Figs. 1 and 2 and Ref.
16), these adjuvants have little or no effect on the
secondary response to peptide.
While a third signal is not necessary for activating memory cells in
vitro (25) or in vivo (Fig. 5), the in vitro response does
require signal 2, which can be provided by IL-2. Neutralizing
anti-IL-2 mAb was used to determine whether IL-2 is also required
for the in vivo response of memory cells to peptide. Adoptively
transferred mice were immunized with peptide plus CFA, rested for >60
days, and rechallenged, and the number of 2C cells in the DLN was
examined on days 1–4 of the response. As expected, mice primed with
peptide plus CFA had larger numbers of 2C cells than adoptively
transferred mice that had not been primed (Fig. 6), and these cells remained quiescent
when rechallenged with PBS. Rechallenge with peptide resulted in a
large expansion of the 2C population that peaked in the DLN on day 3,
and this response was almost completely eliminated in mice that
received anti-IL-2 mAb before and during rechallenge with peptide
(Fig. 6). Thus, while a third signal does not appear to be required for
memory cells to respond to Ag, their response remains dependent on
signal 2.
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). However, these cells are tolerant, in
that they do not expand in response to rechallenge with peptide (Fig. 7), nor do they respond when rechallenged with peptide and adjuvant
(16). In contrast, strong memory responses were obtained
when mice were primed with peptide plus either CFA or IL-12 and
rechallenged with peptide (Fig. 7). IL-12 and CFA appear to be equally
effective as adjuvants in priming for a memory response to peptide
(Figs. 5 and 7).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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A direct requirement for an inflammatory cytokine to stimulate naive CD8 T cells became apparent in studies using artificial APC as a stimulus in vitro (13). Microspheres having class I/peptide Ag complexes and B7-1 and/or ICAM-1 on the surface were not sufficient to stimulate proliferation or development of effector function by highly purified TCR-transgenic CD8 T cells, although the same microspheres effectively stimulated memory CD8 T cells bearing the same TCR. However, when IL-12 was added to the cultures, naive cells responded strongly to the artificial APCs. IL-12 was clearly acting directly on the T cells, because they were the only cells present in the cultures. In addition, all three stimuli were clearly required, because high levels of signal 1 or signal 2 could not overcome the need for IL-12. These results strongly suggested that IL-12 was acting as a distinct third signal and not simply as an alternate signal 2.
As predicted by the in vitro findings, the results presented in this
report demonstrate that in vivo activation of naive CD8 T cells by
peptide Ag also requires three signals. Adoptively transferred CD8 T
cells responded to peptide Ag by clonally expanding and developing
effector function, but only if IL-12 was administered at the same time
(Fig. 1 and Ref. 16). This response did not require CD4 T
cells (Fig. 1) but did depend upon costimulation provided by CD28/B7
interactions (Fig. 2A) and possibly by LFA-1/ICAM-1
interactions (Fig. 2B). This dependence on signal 2 probably
results, at least in part, from its being required to induce production
of IL-2 that is needed to support the response (Fig. 3). IL-12 was
effective in supporting the response to peptide when
IL-12R1-deficient mice were used as the adoptive transfer
recipients, although the response was somewhat reduced in comparison to
that in normal recipients (Fig. 4). Thus, IL-12 can act directly on the
CD8 T cells because these were the only cells able to respond to the
cytokine in the IL-12R1-deficient recipients. This result
demonstrates that sufficient costimulation is present to provide
effective signal 2 for peptide Ag-dependent activation, even when the
expression of costimulatory ligands on host APC is not being
up-regulated. The small but reproducible reduction in the response in
the IL-12R1-deficient recipients suggests that IL-12 might also
contribute to responses in normal mice through effects on APC, perhaps
increasing expression of cytokines (including IL-12) or costimulatory
ligands. TCR-transgenic mice deficient in IL-12R1 are being
generated to examine this possibility. Together with the previous
findings (13, 16), these results argue strongly for a
three-signal model for productive activation of naive CD8 T cells by
peptide Ag both in vitro and in vivo. The third signal, in the form of
IL-12, does not bypass the need for signal 2. Further evidence against
redundancy in the signaling requirements is provided by the inability
of high levels of Ag, signal 2, or IL-12 to overcome the need for all
three signals (13).
Numerous studies have shown that IL-12 can augment or enhance
generation of CTL responses (14, 15, 39), but its critical
role of providing a requisite third signal to naive CD8 T cells has not
been appreciated. In most cases, generation of lytic activity was
measured, and the experiments did not distinguish effects on clonal
expansion vs effector function. In addition, direct effects of IL-12 on
the CD8 T cells were not distinguished from effects on APC.
Furthermore, most experimental models have not exhibited an absolute
dependence on IL-12 but rather an augmentation of response. This may
result in part from the fact that even small numbers of APC in in vitro
cultures can obscure the requirement for a third signal (J. M.
Curtsinger and M. F. Mescher, unpublished results), and from the
fact that memory cells do not depend on a third signal for effective
activation (Figs. 5 and 6). In addition, IL-12 does not appear to be
the only thing that can provide the required third signal. Adoptive
transfer recipients that are deficient in IL-12 production are still
able to respond to challenge with peptide Ag in CFA (16),
and anti-IL-12 mAb does not completely block in vitro
responses to peptide-pulsed splenic APC from normal mice (J. M.
Curtsinger and M. F. Mescher, unpublished results). A number of
cytokines have been tested and fail to replace IL-12 in providing
signal 3, including IL-1, -4, -5, -6, -7, -10, -15, -18, TNF-, and
IFN-
(J. M. Curtsinger and M. F. Mescher, unpublished
results). Preliminary results are consistent with the alternative
signal 3 being a soluble factor, and experiments are in progress to
identify this factor.
Although naive CD8 T cells have a strict requirement for a third signal
to respond to peptide Ag, this is not the case for memory cells. In
vitro studies showed that Ag-bearing microspheres and IL-2 are
sufficient to stimulate the CD44high memory
population of cells that is present in transgenic mice
(13). Two signals are also sufficient in vivo; memory
cells generated by in vivo priming with peptide Ag and either CFA
adjuvant or IL-12 respond by clonal expansion upon rechallenge of the
mice with just peptide (Fig. 5). Including adjuvant or IL-12 during
rechallenge does not substantially increase the extent of clonal
expansion (Fig. 5 and 6), while the response remains dependent on IL-2
(Fig. 6). The ability of memory cells to respond in the absence of a
third signal is likely to contribute to the ability of these cells to
respond rapidly upon reappearance of Ag, in that they can respond
before a significant inflammatory response develops. In the parlance of
the danger model (40), they have already learned that the
Ag they are specific for is dangerous by having responded to IL-12 (or
the alternate third signal) during the initial priming.
Accumulating evidence regarding Ag presentation in vivo for effective
CD8 T cell activation is consistent with a model in which IL-12 can
provide a requisite third signal. DC are the principal cells involved
in presenting Ag to T cells to initiate responses and can provide for
cross-presentation of Ags to CD8 T cells (4, 41, 42, 43). Two
subclasses of DC can be distinguished based on the expression of CD8
on their surface (44), and these subsets differ with
respect to the cytokines they produce. Recent studies have demonstrated
that CD8- DC are more efficient for presentation
of class II-restricted Ag to CD4 T cells, while
CD8+ DC are more efficient for cross-presentation
of Ag to CD8 T cells (43, 45). CD8+
DC also produce high levels of IL-12 upon stimulation, while
CD8- DC produce little (46). Thus,
it appears likely that at least one property of
CD8+ DC that makes them effective for CD8 T cell
activation is their ability to provide the requisite third signal
needed to support responses by the naive cells. DC produce IL-12 upon
stimulation with microbial products (47), and in response
to CD40 ligation (48). Several studies have demonstrated
that CD4 T cells can provide help to initiate CD8 T cell responses via
a CD40/CD40 ligand-dependent mechanism that conditions APC to make them
effective activators of CD8 T cells (49, 50, 51). This
conditioning may involve, at least in part, CD40 ligand-dependent
stimulation of IL-12 production by the DC so that they can provide
signal 3 to the naive CD8 T cells. This would be consistent with recent
results from Albert et al. (5) showing that mature DC are
able to provide signal 1 and 2 to CD8 T cells but still
induce crosstolerance unless a third signal is also present, and
this third signal could be provided by a CD40/CD40 ligand-dependent
interaction of the DC with CD4 T cells.
We have shown that IL-12 can fully support the response of naive CD8 T
cells to peptide Ag, and that this effect is primarily at the level of
the T cell and not host APC (Fig. 4). Thus, when the Ag used is a class
I-restricted peptide epitope, activation of host APC does not appear to
be required for effective Ag presentation or costimulation as long as
signal 3 is provided. However, use of peptide as the Ag bypasses
requirements for DC to take up and process Ag and migrate to draining
LN where the Ag can be presented to T cells. It may also bypass a need
to up-regulate expression of class I or costimulatory ligands on DC due
to relatively high levels of class I/peptide Ag complex being achieved.
Thus, our results argue that one critical function of activated DC is
the production of a cytokine(s) to provide signal 3 but do not suggest
that other functions of activated DC are not critical during viral or
microbial infections.
The ability of IL-12 to support generation of responses and memory upon
immunization with peptide may have practical applications in using
virus- and tumor-specific peptides for protective or therapeutic
immunization. Indeed, Weber et al. (52) have recently
shown that including IL-12 upon immunization of melanoma patients with
peptides from gp100 and tyrosinase significantly increased the numbers
of Ag-specific tetramer-positive and IFN--producing cells in
peripheral blood. We have obtained preliminary results suggesting that
such immunization can significantly reduce growth of established,
progressing tumors in a murine model. IL-12 replaces the need for
adjuvant in supporting a response to peptide Ag by adoptively
transferred TCR-transgenic OT-1 CD8 T cells specific for
Kb/OVA257–264 (22), with
essentially identical effects as in the 2C responses described in this
report (J. Goldberg and M. F. Mescher, unpublished
results). B-16 melanoma cells transfected with OVA grow as colonies in
the lungs following i.v. injection into mice having adoptively
transferred OT-I cells; visible colonies are detectable by day 7 after
tumor injection, and tumor-bearing mice die around day 25 with a large
tumor burden in the lungs. In preliminary experiments, we have found
that immunization of tumor-bearing mice on day 15 with
OVA257–264 peptide and IL-12 results in
activation of the OT-I cells and a dramatic reduction in tumor burden
in the lungs when assessed on day 22 (F. Popescu and M. F.
Mescher, unpublished results). Thus, it appears that IL-12 supports
development of antitumor immunity in this model, and additional
experiments are in progress to determine whether this results in
therapeutic benefit.
Immunization with a class I-restricted peptide alone is often seen to
result in tolerance. When adoptively transferred mice are given peptide
alone, weak clonal expansion of the Ag-specific CD8 T cells occurs
(Fig. 1), but these cells do not develop lytic effector function
(16) or production of IFN- (J. M.
Curtsinger and M. F. Mescher, unpublished observations). A small
population of the Ag-specific cells persists long term and has a memory
phenotype, but these cells are nonresponsive to rechallenge with
peptide alone (Fig. 7) or peptide with either CFA or IL-12
(16). These results suggest that the presence or absence
of signal 3 at the time of priming can determine whether exposure to Ag
results in functional activation and formation of long-term memory or
instead results in tolerance. Thus, Ag recognition and costimulation in
the absence of signal 3 (i.e., in the absence of inflammation) may be
one of the mechanisms by which CD8 T cells are rendered tolerant to
self Ags. Alternatively, a concomitant inflammatory response (and
resulting production of signal 3) at the time of exposure to self Ag
could potentially result in an autoimmune response.
It has become increasingly clear that inflammatory cytokines produced by the innate response have important roles in supporting development of productive T cell responses in vivo, but the basis for their effects are poorly understood. A three-signal model for productive activation of naive CD8 T cells suggests a direct link between the innate and adaptive responses, with the innate response providing the essential third signal in the form of IL-12 or an as yet unidentified cytokine. As discussed above, this model suggests the basis for a number of observations regarding the in vivo requirements for effective CD8 T cell activation. That CD4 T cells may have a similar requirement for a third signal is suggested by several observations. IL-1 can substantially increase in vitro responses of CD4 T cells by acting directly on the T cell (33, 34, 35, 36, 38) and IL-1 can replace the need for adjuvant in supporting an in vivo response of CD4 T cells to peptide Ag (53). If these findings do, in fact, reflect a three-signal requirement for CD4 T cell activation, which will need to be determined in vivo, they suggest that different cytokines provide the third signal for CD4 and CD8 T cell subsets; CD4 responses are supported by IL-1 but not IL-12 (53), while CD8 responses are supported by IL-12 but not IL-1 (16).
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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2 Current address: Eli Lilly and Company, Lilly Corporate Center, Indianapolis, IN 46285.
3 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Matthew F. Mescher, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota, Mayo Mail Code 334, 420 Delaware Street Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55455. E-mail address: mesch001{at}tc.umn.edu
4 Abbreviations used in this paper: DC, dendritic cell; KO, knockout; FSC, forward scatter; LN, lymph node; DLN, draining LN.
Received for publication February 5, 2002. Accepted for publication March 25, 2002.
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S. S. Way, C. Havenar-Daughton, G. A. Kolumam, N. N. Orgun, and K. Murali-Krishna IL-12 and Type-I IFN Synergize for IFN-{gamma} Production by CD4 T Cells, Whereas Neither Are Required for IFN-{gamma} Production by CD8 T Cells after Listeria monocytogenes Infection J. Immunol., April 1, 2007; 178(7): 4498 - 4505. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. M. Gray, S. L. Reiner, D. F. Smith, P. M. Kaye, and P. Scott Antigen-Experienced T Cells Limit the Priming of Naive T Cells during Infection with Leishmania major J. Immunol., July 15, 2006; 177(2): 925 - 933. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Peng, H. Shao, Y. Ke, P. Zhang, J. Xiang, H. J. Kaplan, and D. Sun In Vitro Activation of CD8 Interphotoreceptor Retinoid-Binding Protein-Specific T Cells Requires not only Antigenic Stimulation but also Exogenous Growth Factors. J. Immunol., April 15, 2006; 176(8): 5006 - 5014. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Curtsinger, D. C. Lins, C. M. Johnson, and M. F. Mescher Signal 3 Tolerant CD8 T Cells Degranulate in Response to Antigen but Lack Granzyme B to Mediate Cytolysis J. Immunol., October 1, 2005; 175(7): 4392 - 4399. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. A. Markiewicz, L. N. Carayannopoulos, O. V. Naidenko, K. Matsui, W. R. Burack, E. L. Wise, D. H. Fremont, P. M. Allen, W. M. Yokoyama, M. Colonna, et al. Costimulation through NKG2D Enhances Murine CD8+ CTL Function: Similarities and Differences between NKG2D and CD28 Costimulation J. Immunol., September 1, 2005; 175(5): 2825 - 2833. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. O. Valenzuela, C. D. Hammerbeck, and M. F. Mescher Cutting Edge: Bcl-3 Up-Regulation by Signal 3 Cytokine (IL-12) Prolongs Survival of Antigen-Activated CD8 T Cells J. Immunol., January 15, 2005; 174(2): 600 - 604. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. D. Anthony, N. L. Yonkers, A. B. Post, R. Asaad, F. P. Heinzel, M. M. Lederman, P. V. Lehmann, and H. Valdez Selective Impairments in Dendritic Cell-Associated Function Distinguish Hepatitis C Virus and HIV Infection J. Immunol., April 15, 2004; 172(8): 4907 - 4916. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. M. Richards, S. L. Dalheimer, B. D. Ehst, T. L. Vanasek, M. K. Jenkins, M. I. Hertz, and D. L. Mueller Indirect Minor Histocompatibility Antigen Presentation by Allograft Recipient Cells in the Draining Lymph Node Leads to the Activation and Clonal Expansion of CD4+ T Cells That Cause Obliterative Airways Disease J. Immunol., March 15, 2004; 172(6): 3469 - 3479. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Chang, J.-H. Cho, S.-W. Lee, S.-Y. Choi, S.-J. Ha, and Y.-C. Sung IL-12 Priming during In Vitro Antigenic Stimulation Changes Properties of CD8 T Cells and Increases Generation of Effector and Memory Cells J. Immunol., March 1, 2004; 172(5): 2818 - 2826. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S.-J. Ha, D.-J. Kim, K.-H. Baek, Y.-D. Yun, and Y.-C. Sung IL-23 Induces Stronger Sustained CTL and Th1 Immune Responses Than IL-12 in Hepatitis C Virus Envelope Protein 2 DNA Immunization J. Immunol., January 1, 2004; 172(1): 525 - 531. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Curtsinger, C. M. Johnson, and M. F. Mescher CD8 T Cell Clonal Expansion and Development of Effector Function Require Prolonged Exposure to Antigen, Costimulation, and Signal 3 Cytokine J. Immunol., November 15, 2003; 171(10): 5165 - 5171. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Goldberg, P. Shrikant, and M. F. Mescher In Vivo Augmentation of Tumor-Specific CTL Responses by Class I/Peptide Antigen Complexes on Microspheres (Large Multivalent Immunogen) J. Immunol., January 1, 2003; 170(1): 228 - 235. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Valenzuela, C. Schmidt, and M. Mescher The Roles of IL-12 in Providing a Third Signal for Clonal Expansion of Naive CD8 T Cells J. Immunol., December 15, 2002; 169(12): 6842 - 6849. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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