The Journal of Immunology, 2001, 166: 6358-6366.
Copyright © 2001 by The American Association of Immunologists
IL-10 Up-Regulates Macrophage Expression of the S100 Protein S100A81
Ken Xu,
Tina Yen and
Carolyn L. Geczy2
Cytokine Research Unit, School of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
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Abstract
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The murine calcium binding protein S100A8 (A8) is a leukocyte
chemoattractant, but high levels may be protective and scavenge
hypochlorite. A8 is induced by LPS, IFN-
, and TNF in elicited
macrophages. Th2 cytokines generally suppress proinflammatory gene
expression, and IL-4 and IL-13 partially decreased A8 induction in
macrophages and endothelial cells stimulated by LPS or IFN. In
contrast, IL-10 synergized with LPS and IFN to increase mRNA levels
9-fold and secreted A8 levels
4-fold. IL-10 decreased the optimal
time of mRNA expression induced by LPS from 24 to 8 h. Blocking
experiments indicated that endogenous IL-10 contributes to gene
induction by LPS. Cooperation between IL-10 and LPS was not due to
altered mRNA stability but was dependent on de novo protein synthesis.
Transfection analysis with A8 luciferase constructs confirmed that
synergy was due to increased transcription. The region of the promoter
involved was localized to a 178-bp fragment flanking the transcription
start site of the gene. This region was also responsible for the
suppressive effects of IL-4 and IL-13. Forskolin, CTP-cAMP, and
PGE2 also enhanced LPS- and IFN-induced A8 mRNA, whereas
indomethacin significantly reduced synergy between IL-10 and LPS.
Mitogen-activated protein kinase/cyclooxygenase 2/cAMP pathways
involving CCAAT-enhancing binding protein, located within the active
promoter, may mediate A8 gene up-regulation in a manner mechanistically
distinct to genes regulated by IL-10 via the STAT pathway. A8 exhibits
pleiotropic effects, and the high levels secreted as a result of IL-10
synergy may regulate untoward inflammatory damage by virtue of its an
antioxidant capacity.
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Introduction
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Recent
studies implicate S100 proteins in processes involved in inflammation.
Human S100A8 (A8)3 and
S100A9 (A9) are associated with neutrophil and monocyte activation
processes (1, 2) and adhesion (3) and have
antimicrobial properties (4). The proteins are elevated in
plasma from patients with chronic inflammatory diseases such as
rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease, in lungs of
patients with cystic fibrosis, and in psoriatic epidermis (reviewed in
Refs. 5, 6). Murine A8 is expressed at high levels by
neutrophils and macrophages (Mac) in bacterial abscesses
(7), and lavage fluid from mice with a bleomycin lung
contains high levels of the protein (8). Several other
S100 proteins are chemotactic (9, 10, 11) and have been
located at inflammatory sites (11, 12). In the mouse, A8
(formerly known as CP-10) is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils
and monocytes in vitro and in vivo (13, 14, 15) and may
influence leukocyte margination and transmigration into tissues by
increasing leukocyte deformability (16). Up-regulation of
the A8 gene by LPS (17), IFN-
, IL-1, and TNF in
elicited Mac (18) and by LPS and IL-1 in microvascular
endothelial cells (MEC; 19) suggested a
proinflammatory role.
Pleiotropic effects of some cytokines are not uncommon, and TGF-
is
a particular example. Like A8, TGF-
is chemotactic at picomolar
levels (16), but higher amounts are anti-inflammatory,
and it is a key regulator of wound healing and repair
(20). Both mediators play a role in development (20, 21). Our recent experiments suggest that A8 may be protective
when released at high concentrations, and, in acute inflammatory
responses, it may efficiently scavenge hypochlorite anions produced by
activated neutrophils (22). Neutrophils contain enormous
amounts of A8 (
20% of total cytoplasmic protein), which is released
following activation (6). A8 is only expressed in elicited
Mac following activation. LPS- (17), IFN-, and TNF-induced
gene expression is modulated by Ca2+ and by
pathways involving protein kinase (PK)C, leading to activation of
mitogen-activated (MA)PK (18).
In keeping with the negative regulatory role of Th2 cytokines on
proinflammatory properties of activated Mac, we investigated the
regulation of the A8 gene by IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13. Although Th2
cytokines have some overlapping effects, they also exhibit distinct
actions on Mac. For example, IL-10, but not IL-4 or IL-13,
down-regulates MHC class II expression and Ag presentation by monocytes
(23) and up-regulates monocyte chemoattractant protein
(MCP)-1 production by blood monocytes and alveolar Mac (24, 25), although other chemokines are negatively affected
(26, 27). Moreover, IL-10 positively regulates several
chemoattractant receptors (28, 29, 30). The immunoregulatory
mechanisms involving IL-10 appear complex and involve proinflammatory
and suppressive properties, although, in general, studies using
IL-10-deficient mice indicate that its prime function is to protect the
host from overzealous immune/inflammatory responses
(31).
Here we present evidence that IL-4 and IL-13 partially suppressed A8
induction in elicited Mac and a microvascular endothelial cell line
(MEC). In stark contrast, IL-10 strongly synergized with LPS or IFN to
markedly enhance A8 secretion. Synergy may involve a cAMP-dependent
pathway, acting principally at the level of transcription, and was
confined to a small region of the proximal promoter containing binding
sites for Ets and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein (C/EBP) transcription
factors.
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Materials and Methods
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Reagents
RPMI 1640 and DMEM were obtained from Life Technologies (Grand
Island, NY), and antibiotics and HBSS were obtained from Sigma (St.
Lois, MO). Bovine calf serum, obtained from HyClone Laboratories
(Logan, UT), was heated at 56°C before use. Plastic flasks and plates
were obtained from Falcon (Lincoln Park, NJ). Thioglycollate (TG) broth
and LPS (Escherichia coli, 055:B5) were obtained from Difco
(Detroit, MI). IFN was obtained from Genentech (San Francisco, CA;
0.032 endotoxin units/mg; specific activity 0.5 x
107 U/mg). Forskolin was obtained from Sigma,
IL-4, IL-10, IL-13, TGF-
, and monoclonal anti-mouse IL-10 Ab
from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN), and PGE2,
CTP-cAMP, Br-cAMP, Br-cGMP, SB202190, and PD98059 from Calbiochem
(Croydon, Victoria, Australia). For inhibition of mRNA-synthesis, 5
mg/ml actinomycin D (ActD; Calbiochem) in ethanol was diluted into
medium. Cycloheximide (CHX; Sigma) was used as protein synthesis
inhibitor.
Cell culture
TG-elicited Mac were obtained as described (18),
and washed cells (5 x 106) in 60-mm tissue
culture plates were incubated for 1 h at 37°C in 5%
CO2 in air, washed three times with warm (37°C)
HBSS to remove nonadherent cells, and equilibrated in culture medium
for 18 h. Culture medium (3 ml) was replenished before activation,
and populations contained >98% Mac (
98% viable by trypan blue
exclusion) and <0.3% neutrophils. Mac were stimulated for up to
96 h with the agents indicated.
The murine monocyte-Mac cell line RAW 264.7 (TIB 71; American Type
Culture Collection, Manassas, VA) and the murine edothelioma cell line
(MEC) derived from brain (bEND-3) were cultured as described (17, 19). MEC were stimulated once they had reached postconfluence
(67 days).
Northern analysis
Total cellular RNA (from
5 x 106
Mac) was size fractionated and transferred onto membranes as described
(17). Hybridizations with A8 and A9 riboprobes were for
16 h at 58°C and at 36°C for the 18S rRNA oligoprobe in
formamide-containing buffer as described (19). Membranes
were washed twice at 48°C for 10 min in 2x standard saline citrate
phosphate/EDTA with 0.1% SDS, then twice with 0.1x standard saline
citrate phosphate/EDTA with 0.1% SDS at 65°C for 30 min. Phosphor
imager analyses were performed with a Bio-Rad Molecular Imager GS-525
system (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA). The relative magnitude of expression
for each gene was determined using software packages and normalized to
the level of 18S RNA on the same blot. Blots were stripped according to
the manufacturers instructions.
Quantitation of A8 protein
A8 in supernatants or cell lysates was quantitated using a
double-sandwich ELISA and rabbit polyclonal anti-A8 IgG as
described (7, 17) using recombinant A8 (0.150 ng/ml) as
standard. The lower limit of detection was
30 pg/ml.
Reporter plasmids
Truncated promoter fragments of the A8 gene were produced either
by using conveniently located restriction endonuclease sites or by
nested deletion of a PCR-amplified product. In brief, two fragments
extending from EcoRI and XboI sights (-917 and
-665, respectively) to an ASP700I site at +465 (8 bp before
the start codon in exon 2) were excised from pCP110, end-filled, and
placed upstream of the luciferase reporter gene in pGL2-basic vector
(Promega, Madison, WI) at an end-filled HindIII site. The
constructs were designated pCP-917/+465 and pCP-665/+465, respectively.
A 783-bp fragment spanning -316 to +465 was amplified by PCR using
pUC/M13 forward sequencing primer (GTTTTCCCAGTCACGAC) and exon primer
II (TGTCagatctGATTTCCTTTCAACTGA). PCR was performed as described
(32) but using Pfu DNA polymerase (Stratagene,
La Jolla, CA). Following BamHI/BglII digestion,
the fragment was subcloned into BglII sites of pGL2-basic
producing pCP-316/+465. The 5' deletion mutants (with a common 3'-end
at +465) generated using the double-stranded Nested Deletion kit
(Amersham Pharmacia Biotech, Uppsala, Sweden) yielded the
pCP-x/+465 construct series (x represents
different 5' ends). The extent of deletion was verified by
sequencing.
Transient transfections
RAW 264.7 cells were transiently transfected as described
(18) using 2 x 105 cells/well
seeded into 12-well plates 24 h before transfection, and then 0.5
µg luciferase reporter plasmid or 0.1 µg reference plasmid (pRL-TK;
Promega) was transfected in the presence of DEAE-dextran (Sigma; 300
µg/ml). After 24 h, cells were stimulated for 20 h with the
agents indicated, and firefly and Renilla luciferase activities assayed
with 20 µl extract using Promega reagents according to the
manufacturers instructions. Results are expressed as mean ± SD
of luciferase activity from three separate experiments. Data was
analyzed using the Student t test, and differences were
considered statistically significant when p <
0.05.
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Results
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IL-4 and IL-13 suppress A8 mRNA induction
IFN rapidly and maximally induces A8 mRNA 12 h after
stimulation of elicited Mac, whereas LPS responses are optimal after
24 h (18). To compare the effects of Th2 cytokines on
A8 mRNA expression, TG-elicited Mac were treated with IL-4 and IL-13 in
the presence or absence of IFN or LPS using these time points. IL-4 and
IL-13 did not alter basal A8 mRNA levels (Fig. 1
A) but suppressed positive
responses by
50% (Fig. 1
B). Higher doses (30 ng/ml IL-4
or 30 ng/ml IL-13) did not potentiate inhibition (data not shown).
Suppression at the mRNA and protein levels was observed with
LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. Secreted A8 produced in response to LPS
was reduced by
90% by IL-4; IL-13 caused
66% suppression (Table I
).
Murine A8 is also induced in MEC by LPS and IL-1
(19).
IL-4, -10, and -13 did not alter basal A8 mRNA levels (Fig. 2
A), and IL-4 suppressed the
LPS-induced response by 50%. Although not as potent as IL-4, when
IL-13 was incubated with LPS, gene induction decreased by
20% (Fig. 2
B). IL-10 weakly reduced mRNA levels in LPS-activated MEC,
and suppression was additive when IL-10 was mixed with IL-4 or
IL-13.

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FIGURE 2. Th2 cytokines regulate A8 gene expression in murine microvascular
endothelial cells. A, The bEND-3 cells were untreated or
treated with IL-4 (10 ng/ml), IL-10 (10 ng/ml), or IL-13 (10 ng/ml) or
their combinations in the presence or absence of LPS (100 ng/ml) for
24 h before extraction of RNA for Northern blot analysis.
B, Relative mRNA levels of A8 are presented as the
percentage of maximal expression induced by LPS normalized to 18S rRNA.
Results are representative of three experiments.
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IL-10 and TGF-
amplify inducible A8 in Mac
IL-10 did not induce A8 mRNA directly (Fig. 1
A) but
increased the LPS-activated response >5-fold after 24 h
stimulation, and mRNA levels of IFN plus IL-10-stimulated cells
harvested at 12 h were 2-fold higher (Fig. 1
B). Similar
results were observed with RAW 264.7 cells (data not shown) and were
reflected by
3-fold higher A8 in supernatants following LPS plus
IL-10 stimulation (1.78 ± 0.14 ng A8/ml) compared with levels
induced with LPS alone (0.59 ± 0.06 ng/ml; Table I
).
TGF-
is also involved in resolution of inflammation, and responses
to TGF-
were compared with those provoked by the Th2 cytokines. Fig. 1
B shows moderate A8 mRNA induction at 24 h, but not at
12 h (Fig. 1
A), after addition of TGF-
, and
responses to IFN at 12 h and LPS at 24 h increased
1.5-fold when TGF-
was included (Fig. 1
B). A8 in
supernatants of LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells increased from 0.59
± 0.06 ng/ml to 0.75 ± 0.26 ng/ml when LPS and TGF-
were
cocultured.
Because IL-10 generally down-regulates proinflammatory responses in
Mac, the marked up-regulation of the A8 gene is unusual, and mechanisms
involved in potentiation of LPS responses were investigated more
fully.
Characterization of IL-10-mediated synergy of A8 expression
To confirm synergy between IL-10 and LPS, increasing amounts of
LPS were cultured with a constant amount of IL-10 (10 ng/ml). In
agreement with our previous data (18), elicited Mac
responded to 0.550 ng/ml LPS with little potentiation with higher
amounts (500 ng/ml; Fig. 3
A).
When IL-10 was included, a linear increase in mRNA was evident with
doses of LPS between 0.5 and 50 ng/ml, with maximal synergy at 50 ng or
greater. An LPS dose of 100 ng/ml was used in all subsequent
experiments.

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FIGURE 3. LPS and IL-10 synergize to induce high levels of A8. A,
Induction of A8 mRNA by varying doses of LPS. TG-elicited Mac were
cultured with LPS in the presence or absence of IL-10 (10 ng/ml) for
24 h, and A8 mRNA was analyzed by Northern blotting. Relative mRNA
levels represent percentage of maximal expression. Data represent
means ± SD of three experiments. B, Amplification
of LPS-induced A8 mRNA by IL-10. Northern blotting of RNA from Mac
treated for 24 h with LPS (100 ng/ml) in the presence or absence
of increasing concentrations of IL-10. IL-4 (10 ng/ml) was also added
with IL-10 (10 ng/ml) in the presence or absence of LPS. Data are
representative of two experiments.
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IL-10 showed a dose-dependent induction of A8 mRNA in the presence of
LPS, with marked amplification at 10 ng/ml (Fig. 3
B). IL-4
suppressed the synergy, reducing A8 mRNA levels almost to those of LPS
alone (Fig. 3
B). A8 in supernatants of RAW 264.7 cells
stimulated with LPS and IL-10 was 1.78 ng/ml, and IL-4 or IL-13 reduced
this to 0.01 ± 0.01 or 0.07 ± 0.02 ng/ml, respectively
(Table I
).
IL-10 markedly decreased the optimal time of A8 mRNA induction by LPS.
Low mRNA levels were evident 6 h after addition of LPS; levels
peaked at 2448 h and declined slowly thereafter (Fig. 4
A). The dramatic increases in
mRNA (
9-fold) in the presence of IL-10 were maximal by 812 h and
declined rapidly to levels below those induced by LPS alone after
48 h. A8 in supernatants reflected this rapid increase and
remained 3- to 4-fold higher than levels in supernatants from Mac
stimulated by LPS alone until 72 h after stimulation (Fig. 4
B).

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FIGURE 4. IL-10 reduces the optimal time for induction of A8 by LPS and mediates
the LPS-induced response. A, Mac were untreated
(control, ) or stimulated with 10 ng/ml IL-10 ( ), 100 ng/ml LPS
( ), or IL-10 and LPS combined () for the times indicated before
Northern blot analysis. Relative A8 mRNA levels are presented as fold
increases of maximal mRNA levels induced by LPS. Results are
representative of two experiments. B, A8 in supernatants
of elicited Mac, untreated ( ), treated with LPS ( ), or with LPS
plus IL-10 (), was quantitated by ELISA. Protein (nanograms A8
generated by 106 Mac) is expressed as the mean ± SD
of duplicates from three experiments. C, Cells were
untreated ( ), treated with LPS as in A with () or
without ( ) IL-10 mAb (2 µg/ml) and anti-IL10 mAb alone ( ).
Relative mRNA levels are plotted against duration of stimulation. Data
are representative of two experiments.
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Because IL-10 is secreted by LPS-activated Mac, induction of the
LPS-induced A8 gene in the presence of neutralizing anti-IL-10 mAb
was examined. Relative mRNA levels were reduced by
50% 24 and
48 h after stimulation with LPS (Fig. 4
C).
Mechanisms of IL-10-mediated A8 gene expression
Many IL-10-mediated effects are via induction of new genes. If
IL-10-increased LPS-induced A8 was due to new protein synthesis,
synergy may be enhanced in Mac pretreated with IL-10 and/or blocked in
Mac costimulated with a protein synthesis inhibitor. A8 mRNA in Mac
preincubated with IL-10 for 13 h before addition of LPS were greater
(12-fold increased mRNA levels compared with LPS alone) than
preincubation for 24 h (3-fold increase) (Fig. 5
A). When LPS and IL-10 were
added together at the start of the culture, mRNA levels were
10-fold
more than those produced by LPS alone. Synergy was reduced by
60%
when IL-10 was added 3 h after LPS and became less obvious after
later addition. Mac treated with LPS ± IL-10 and a concentration
of CHX which inhibits protein synthesis by >95% (33) did
not express A8 mRNA levels significantly above controls (Fig. 5
B), confirming a requirement for new protein synthesis.
The IL-10-mediated activation of genes may result from alterations in
transcriptional activity (28) or in the stability of
primary transcripts and/or of mature cytoplasmic RNA or from both
(34, 35). To elucidate mechanism(s), Mac incubated with
LPS for 24 h or with LPS plus IL-10 for 12 h were treated
with ActD for various times to block further transcription. As reported
earlier, ActD transiently increased LPS-induced A8 mRNA within the
first 4 h and then declined gradually, with a half-life of 16
h (18). IL-10 diminished the early increase in mRNA
levels, and half-life was reduced to 10 h (Fig. 6
). Although steady-state levels of A8
mRNA were different in LPS plus IL-10- and LPS-treated Mac, degradation
rates were comparable, indicating little effect of IL-10 on the
stability of LPS-induced A8 mRNA.

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FIGURE 6. Effect of IL-10 on stability of LPS-induced A8 mRNA. Mac were
stimulated with LPS (100 ng/ml) in the presence or absence of IL-10 (10
ng/ml) for 12 h. RNA was extracted immediately or after incubation
of cells with ActD (1 µg/ml) for the times indicated. Densitometric
analysis of signal intensities relative to 18S rRNA from LPS ()- or
LPS plus IL-10 ( )-treated Mac are plotted against time after ActD
addition. Insert shows results of Northern blot analysis of A8 mRNA.
Results are representative of three experiments.
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To determine whether IL-10 synergy involved A8 gene transcription and
to locate LPS and IL-10 response elements in the region 5' to the
transcription start site, a series of 5' deletion fragments of this
sequence linked to a luciferase reporter gene were transiently
transfected into RAW 264.7 cells. LPS treatment increased luciferase
activity 7- to 10-fold in cells transfected with the pCP-178/+465 A8
promoter construct (Fig. 7
A).
IL-10 alone also caused a small but reproducible increase (
3-fold),
and, when used with LPS, luciferase activity was potentiated to 14- to
20-fold (Fig. 7
A), confirming enhanced transcription.

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FIGURE 7. Effect of IL-10 on LPS-induced A8 gene transcription and identification
of an IL-4-, IL-13-, and IL-10-responsive region in the 5' flanking
sequence. A, Serial 5' deletion fragments of the A8
promoter region linked to a luciferase reporter gene were transiently
transfected into RAW 264.7 cells and stimulated 24 h later with
IL-10 (10 ng/ml), LPS (100 ng/ml), or LPS plus IL-10 for 16 h. The
relative luciferase activity for each transfection was normalized using
Renilla luciferase as described in Materials and
Methods. B, The pCP-178/0 A8 promoter luciferase
construct was transiently transfected into RAW 264.7 cells that were
untreated or stimulated with IL-4 (10 ng/ml) or IL-13 (10 ng/ml) in the
presence or absence of LPS and/or IL-10 for 16 h and relative
luciferase activity measured. Data are representative of the mean
± SD of three experiments.
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Analysis of unidirectional deletion mutants of the A8 promoter fragment
indicated that responses to LPS or LPS plus IL-10 were located between
positions -178 and -94; the 84-bp fragment remained sensitive to LPS
and IL-10 (Fig. 7
A). The minimal construct pCP-178/0 was
used to test whether IL-4 and IL-13 suppression of the LPS-inducible A8
gene was also confined to this region. Fig. 7
B shows that
IL-4 and IL-13 reduced LPS-induced responses by 50%. Although IL-4 and
IL-13 did not reduce IL-10-induced luciferase activity, they strongly
suppressed IL-10-LPS synergy, and results correlated closely with
effects on mRNA and protein levels described above. Taken together,
IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10 appear to regulate A8 gene expression of
LPS-stimulated Mac via transcriptionally mediated processes through DNA
elements present in the defined promoter of this gene.
Is synergy with IL-10 via PGE2 and cAMP?
Some S100 genes are activated via PKC,- PKA-, and/or
Ca2+-dependent pathways (18, 36, 37). Preliminary experiments to determine intracellular
mechanisms involved in A8 gene regulation by IL-10 were performed.
Although not activating alone, PKA activators PMA, (18),
Br-cAMP, and CTP-cAMP markedly increased IFN- and LPS-induced A8 mRNA,
and the cAMP-elevating agent forskolin potentiated the LPS
response, albeit to lower levels than the other agents (Fig. 8
A). CTP-cAMP did not
potentiate A8 mRNA levels induced by LPS plus IL-10.
PGE2 tested at two doses did not alter basal A8
mRNA levels but substantially increased the LPS-induced response (Fig. 8
B), whereas indomethacin markedly reduced synergy between
LPS and IL-10 (Fig. 8
C).

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FIGURE 8. PGE2 and cAMP analogs synergize with LPS and IFN for A8
mRNA induction. A, Northern analysis of A8 mRNA
induction in Mac stimulated for 12 h with LPS (100 ng/ml) or IFN
(500 U) with or without 50 µM Br-cAMP, 50 µM CTP-cAMP, and 50 µM
forskolin. B, Mac were unstimulated or stimulated with
PGE2 (10 µM), indomethacin (100 µM), or LPS (100 ng/ml)
in the presence or absence of PGE2 (1 µM for
PGE2L, 10 µM for PGE2H) or costimulated with
IL-10 plus LPS with or without indomethacin (10 µM for IndoL, 100
µM for IndoH) for 12 h and RNA analyzed. Results are
representative of two experiments. C, RAW 264.7 cells
were transiently transfected with the pCP-178/0 A8 luciferase promoter
construct and stimulated 24 h later with IL-10 (10 ng/ml), LPS
(100 ng/ml), or LPS plus IL-10 in the presence or absence of cAMP
pathway modulators (50 µM CTP-cAMP, 100 µM indomethacin, 10 µM
PGE2) for 16 h. Relative luciferase activity for each
transfection is presented as the mean ± SD of three experiments.
Significant differences in responses of activated cells. *,
p < 0.01; #, p < 0.05,
compared with activity of control cells.
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Weak potentiation of the LPS response by PGE2 was
confirmed using the pCP-178/0 reporter construct (Fig. 8
C).
In three separate experiments, luciferase activity in transfected Mac
stimulated with LPS alone increased 1.28 ± 0.06-fold with
PGE2 plus LPS (p <
0.05), suggesting a requirement for other elements outside the region
of the essential promoter for full enhancement by
PGE2. The synergy evident with LPS plus IL-10
increased from 1.83 ± 0.08-fold (relative to LPS alone) to
2.34 ± 0.17-fold when PGE2 was included
(p < 0.05). Conversely, indomethacin
suppressed LPS plus IL-10 synergy (p < 0.01,
compared with LPS plus IL-10) to levels provoked by LPS alone, although
LPS-induced luciferase activity was unaffected. Taken together, IL-10
may amplify LPS-induced A8 via PGE2 and cAMP
produced via the cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 pathway.
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Discussion
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The roles of A8 in inflammation are still unclear. In the mouse,
A8 is induced in Mac by LPS, IFN, and TNF in the absence of A9
(17, 18), whereas the human counterparts are generally
coexpressed and the A8/A9 heterodimer is implicated as the functional
form (5, 6). Murine A8 is chemotactic for monocytes and
neutrophils at picomolar levels in vitro, but the human homologue does
not share this function (13). In contrast, A8 from both
species is highly susceptible to oxidation by hypochlorite, a property
not shared with A9 (22). We suggested that, in acute
inflammation, A8 expressed in enormous amounts by neutrophils and
released at inflammatory sites (7, 8) may protect the host
against excessive oxidative damage. Here we show that induction of
murine A8 is differentially regulated by agents that generally
down-regulate proinflammatory Mac functions.
IL-4 and IL-13 inhibited mRNA induced by LPS in Mac (Fig. 1
) and MEC
(Fig. 2
) by
50%. Transient transfection analysis of an A8 reporter
construct into RAW 264.7 cells confirmed similar levels of suppression
of gene transcription by both cytokines (Fig. 7
B). Although
IL-4 and IL-13 at high levels never reduced mRNA more than 60%,
inhibition was additive when the mediators were used together (Figs. 2
and 7
B), yielding secreted protein levels barely above
baseline (Table I
). Suppression by IL-4 and IL-13 is not unexpected
because they share the IL-4
receptor component, thereby activating
common signaling pathways (38). In contrast, IL-10
markedly enhanced A8 gene transcription and A8 protein secreted by Mac
cocultured with LPS or IFN (Fig. 1
and Table I
). The mRNA levels in MEC
were relatively unaffected (Fig. 2
), suggesting cell-specific
regulation of the A8 gene by IL-4, IL-13, and IL-10. In contrast, IL-4
and IL-10 both amplify MCP-1 production by murine MEC (24, 39).
The immunoregulatory roles of IL-10 appear complex and even
paradoxical. In addition to positive effects on Ab production, CTL
development, and growth-costimulatory activity for thymocytes, mast
cells, and B cells (40, 41, 42), IL-10, like IL-4 and IL-13,
inhibits expression of many proinflammatory Mac-derived genes and some
types of inflammation in vivo (31, 43, 44). IL-10 plays a
pivotal role in establishing and maintaining T cell anergy, whereas
IL-4 and IL-13 direct a Th2 cytokine profile typical of an allergic
response or a protective response to parasite infection. Thus,
up-regulation of A8 by IL-10 and suppression by IL-4 and IL-13 suggest
a role for this mediator in resolution of Th1 T cell-mediated immune
responses, particularly because A8 expression by Mac was prolonged and
cAMP mediated (Fig. 8
). In contrast, early in an inflammatory response,
IL-10 may regulate leukocyte recruitment by amplifying the A8 gene.
IL-10 affects leukocyte migration in vivo (45, 46), and it
augments plalelet-activating factor receptor, FMLP-R (28)
and CCR-5 (29, 30) expression on monocytes, and their
production of human CC chemokine-4 (47) and MCP-1
chemokines (25) in vitro, strongly supporting a role in
leukocyte migration. Other chemokine genes are either down-regulated or
not affected by IL-10. Unlike the direct positive effect of IL-10 on
chemotactic receptors or human CC chemokine-4 and MCP-1 expression, A8
gene amplification required a positive costimulant, LPS or IFN. TGF-
also has pleiotropic effects and generally suppresses
tissue/inflammatory Mac function but activates monocytes
(48). TGF-
directly induced A8 mRNA (Fig. 1
A) in elicited Mac and, although not to the same extent as
IL-10, also increased responses provoked by IFN and LPS (Fig. 1
B).
Because of the unusual nature and potency of the LPS response to IL-10,
it was examined in more detail. Dose-response experiments (Fig. 3
)
confirmed synergy, and the time for optimal A8 mRNA induction by LPS
was reduced from 2448 h to 812 h (Fig. 4
A), and secreted
A8 increased
5-fold within 8 h (Fig. 4
B). Moreover,
endogenous IL-10, which is up-regulated by LPS in monocytes
(49), contributed significantly to A8 mRNA levels induced
by LPS 2448 h after stimulation (Fig. 4
C). In contrast,
MCP-1 levels are elevated in human monocytes stimulated with LPS in the
presence of anti-IL-10 Ab (25).
Genes induced/enhanced by IL-10 can be regulated by transcriptional
(28) and/or post-transcriptional mechanisms (34, 35). IL-10 abolished the early increase in A8 mRNA levels in
LPS-stimulated Mac occurring soon after addition of ActD to prevent
further transcription (18), suggesting involvement of a
suppressor. After 4 h, the degradation rate of LPS/IL-10 mRNA was
similar to that of Mac stimulated with LPS alone (Fig. 6
), indicating
little alteration in mRNA stability. IL-10-mediated mRNA
destabilization in murine Mac occurs through AU-rich elements
(50), and because the 3'-untranslated region of the A8
gene lacks these (18), destabilization by IL-10 is
unlikely. Like A8 mRNA in elicited Mac induced by LPS
(18), the IL-10-mediated increase was dependent on protein
synthesis (Fig. 5
), and synergy was greatest in Mac pretreated with
IL-10 for 13 h (Fig. 5
A), suggesting that IL-10-inducible
factor(s) mediate enhancement.
PGE2 produced by LPS-stimulated Mac
(51) regulates many functions of these cells, including
cAMP and IL-10 generation (52, 53, 54). Suppression of COX-2,
the enzyme at the rate-limiting step of prostanoid production, by
indomethacin indicates that, like endogenous IL-10, endogenous
PGE2 contributed to A8 mRNA levels 24 h
after stimulation of Mac with LPS or LPS/IL-10 (Fig. 8
B).
PGE2 and cAMP analogs alone did not initiate or
weakly initiated A8 gene expression (Fig. 8
A). Reporter
assays confirmed low transcriptional activity provoked directly by
CTP-cAMP in RAW 264.7 cells (Fig. 8
C).
PGE2 and CTP-cAMP, but not cGMP, analogs (data
not shown) strongly amplified LPS-and IFN-stimulated responses (Fig. 8
, A and B) and increased transcription of the
luciferase reporter in the presence of LPS or LPS/IL-10 (Fig. 8
C). These studies suggest indirect regulation of the A8
gene in macrophages by LPS, involving LPS-mediated production of IL-10
and PGE2, via a cAMP-dependent pathway.
The high A8 mRNA and protein levels induced by LPS plus IL-10 were
markedly reduced by IL-4 and IL-13 (Fig. 3
B and Table I
),
confirming their important negative regulatory role. Although
mechansims are unclear, IL-4 and IL-13 decreased transcription of the
minimal A8 promoter in RAW 264.7 cells stimulated with LPS/IL-10 by
60% (Fig. 7
B). Constitutive expression of A8 protein in
human monocytes is suppressed by IL-4 and IL-10, and decreases are also
greatest with the mediators combined (55). Reduced
production of IL-10 and PGE2 by IL-4 and IL-13,
as occurs with some monocyte/Mac populations (56, 57, 58), may
contribute to suppression.
The 178-bp region of the A8 promoter is necessary and sufficient for
gene induction by LPS, and transient transfection experiments confirmed
the involvement of this region in LPS synergy with IL-10 (Fig. 7
A). IL-10R signaling involves activation of Jak kinases and
phosphorylation of receptor docking sites for members of the STAT
family of transcription factors (59, 60). IL-10-mediated
potentiation can occur via binding of phosphorylated STAT1 and STAT3
multimeric complexes to the IFN-
response region, such as in the
Fc
RI gene promoter (61). However, database searches
indicate no STAT binding elements or IFN-
response region in the
essential A8 promoter, although several copies of Ets, E-Box and
C/EBP
consensus sequences were located. C/EBP is strongly associated
with cAMP signaling pathways, and its expression is intensified by cAMP
(62, 63, 64). C/EBP is conserved in the promoter regions of
the murine and human A8 genes and is located within an enhancer element
in the human A9 gene (65, 66). The human A8 promoter is
activated by C/EBP (67). C/EBP
can be up-regulated
following monocyte activation (68) and is involved in
induction of the COX-2 gene in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells
(69), suggesting a mechanism for a potentiating feedback
loop in A8 gene regulation in Mac by PGE2. IL-4
and IL-13 decrease TNF-
-induced C/EBP in synovial fibroblasts,
whereas IL-10 up-regulates basal levels (70), suggesting a
common mechanism. Examination of the role of this transcription factor
in A8 gene regulation by pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines is
underway in our laboratory.
Induction of A8 by LPS is dependent on multiple signals, including
changes in intracellular calcium, PKC, and activation of MAPK
(18), and early induction of A8 mRNA by LPS/IL-10 (48 h)
was abolished by the MAPK inhibitors SB202190 and PD98059 (data not
shown). Here we show that IL-10, COX-2, and cAMP contribute to the LPS
response, and we propose that the MAPK/COX-2/cAMP pathways involving
C/EBP may regulate transcriptional synergy between LPS and IL-10 in a
manner similar to up-regulation of the arginase gene by LPS and IL-10
(71, 72, 73, 74). This differs mechanistically to genes regulated
by IL-10 via the STAT pathway. Multiple factors may be involved and may
include a newly synthesized protein that regulates release of a
suppressor to promote rapid transcription.
A8 may exhibit pleiotropic effects, and the high levels secreted as a
result of IL-10 synergy may regulate untoward inflammatory damage by
virtue of A8s capacity to act as an antioxidant (22),
thereby protecting against acute cytokine-mediated pathology.
 |
Acknowledgments
|
|---|
We are grateful to Drs. Sheng Ping Hu and Robert Passey for
constructing the A8 luciferase reporter plasmids.
 |
Footnotes
|
|---|
1 This work was supported by a grant from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. K.X. holds an Australian postgraduate award. 
2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Carolyn Geczy, School of Pathology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. 
3 Abbreviations used in this paper: A8, S100A8; A9, S100A9; Mac, macrophages; MEC, microvascular endothelial cells; PK, protein kinase; MA, mitogen-activated; MCP, monocyte chemotactic protein; C/EBP, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein; TG, thioglycollate; ActD, actinomycin D; CHX, cytoheximide; COX-2, cyclooxy-genase 2. 
Received for publication December 20, 2000.
Accepted for publication March 15, 2001.
 |
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