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*
Division of Immunity and Infection, Medical Research Council Center for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom;
Unite d’Immunologie Virale, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The maintenance of an inflammatory infiltrate requires a distorted balance among leukocyte recruitment, retention, proliferation, and death. Rheumatoid synovial T cells are highly susceptible to apoptosis in vitro, which reflects their advanced state of differentiation (4). However, we have recently shown that T cell apoptosis is actively suppressed in the rheumatoid synovium by stromal derived factors such as IFN-ß (5, 6). These observations led us to propose that failure of synovial T cell apoptosis coupled to enhanced recruitment leads to accumulation of these cells within the rheumatoid synovium (5). However the contribution of changes in the rate of T cell exit from the inflamed synovium to the persistence of the T cell infiltrate has not been addressed.
A striking feature of rheumatoid synovial T cells is their enhanced integrin function despite the fact that they do not appear to be activated, suggesting the presence of an integrin-activating microenvironment within the joint (7, 8). The molecular basis for this is obscure, but stromal-derived chemokines are attractive candidates, because they act as potent integrin-activating agents and play a key role in regulating the navigation and positioning of leukocyte subsets within tissue microenvironments (9, 10).
Chemokines are divided into two main functional groups (11, 12). Inducible, inflammatory chemokines are produced in peripheral tissue at sites of inflammation, where they function to recruit neutrophils, monocytes, immature dendritic cells, and activated T cells. In contrast, constitutive chemokines, produced in the bone marrow and secondary lymphoid organs, regulate leukocyte trafficking under noninflammatory, physiological conditions (11, 12). The spectrum of chemokine receptors expressed by different leukocyte subsets determines the anatomical site to which they are recruited. For example, naive T cells migrate almost exclusively between the peripheral circulation and secondary lymphoid organs using the constitutive chemokine receptor CCR7, whereas effector cells that lack CCR7 but express the inflammatory chemokines receptors CCR5 and CXCR3, migrate predominantly to inflammatory sites (13).
Synovial T cells express high levels of the inflammatory chemokine receptors CCR5 and CXCR3, which is consistent with their highly differentiated state (14). These receptors mark subsets of T cells with a propensity to migrate to inflammatory sites where their ligands are produced. In contrast, rheumatoid synovial T cells do not express the chemokine receptor CCR4, which is restricted to memory T cells at sites of cutaneous inflammation (15, 16).
In this study we have tested the hypothesis that the rheumatoid synovial microenvironment promotes T cell accumulation by an active chemokine-driven process. We found that rheumatoid synovial T cells express high, functionally relevant levels of the chemokine receptor CXCR4. This constitutive chemokine receptor was previously reported to be expressed predominantly on unprimed T cells and has been implicated in promoting precursor cell retention in fetal liver and bone marrow (17, 18, 19). We have identified TGF-ß as an important synovial-derived factor involved in maintaining inappropriately high levels of CXCR4 on synovial T cells. In addition, synovial endothelial cells express SDF-1, the only known ligand for CXCR4, in close proximity to perivascular T cell aggregates within the rheumatoid synovium. These observations suggest that the active retention of T cells by an integrin-mediated, chemokine-driven mechanism directly contributes to their accumulation within the synovial compartment.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 (Sigma-Aldrich, Irvine, U.K.)
with 10% FCS supplemented with antibiotics as previously described
(4, 5). Recombinant human IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12,
IL-15, TGF-ß2, TGF-ß3, stem cell factor, stromal cell-derived
factor (SDF-1
), bone morphogenetic protein-4, macrophage
inflammatory protein-1, and macrophage chemotactic protein were
purchased from R&D Systems (Abingdon, U.K.); IL-1, IL-4, IL-8,
IL-13, TNF-, TGF-ß1, basic fibroblast growth factor, vascular
endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF), platelet-derived growth factor,
SDF-1ß, and epithelial neutrophil-activating peptide-78 were
purchased from PeproTech (London, U.K.); IL-16 was obtained from
Endogen (Woburn, MA); IFN- and IFN-ß were obtained from BioSource
(Watford, U.K.); IFN-
was purchased from Biogen (Bracknell, U.K.);
PMA was obtained from Sigma; and IL-2 was purchased from Chiron
(Harefield, U.K.). All cytokines were used at 10 ng/ml, except for IL-2
(25 U/ml), IFN- (100 U/ml), TGF-ß1 (2 ng/ml), TGF-ß2 and
TGF-ß3 (1 ng/ml), stem cell factor and macrophage inflammatory
protein-1 (5 ng/ml), macrophage chemotactic protein-1 (20
ng/ml), VEGF (25 ng/ml), SDF-1 and PMA (50 ng/ml), SDF-1ß (80
ng/ml), and bone morphogenetic protein-4 (100 ng/ml). Fibronectin was
obtained from Sigma-Aldrich and used at 100 µg/ml to coat parallel
flow chambers. Recombinant ICAM-1 Fc fusion protein was used as
previously described (20). The following primary mAbs were
used for flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry: CD3-PE (UCHT1) IgG1
(Dako, Cambridge, U.K.), CD4-PE (Leu 3a) IgG1 (Becton Dickinson,
Mountain View, CA), CD4-Bio (Leu 3a) IgG1 (Becton Dickinson),
CD45RA-biotin (SN 130) IgG1 (Royal Free Hospital, London, U.K.),
CD45RO-PE (UCHL1) IgG2a (Dako), CCR5 IgG2b, CXCR3 IgG1 (Serotech,
Oxford, U.K.), CXCR4 (12G5) IgG2a (R&D Systems), and SDF-1 (K15C) IgG2a
(21). Irrelevant conjugated and unconjugated mouse or
rabbit Abs of each isotype were used to establish specificity of
staining. Secondary Abs were obtained from Southern Biotechnology
(Birmingham, AL).
Patients, peripheral blood, synovial cell, and synovial fluid (SF) separation
Samples from peripheral venous blood and SF were collected into preservative-free heparin from patients who fulfilled the 1987 ACR criteria for rheumatoid arthritis (20). PBL and SF lymphocytes (SFL) were isolated as previously described (5). SF was immediately centrifuged to remove cells and debris before storage as aliquots at -70°C. Synovial tissue was taken from hip, knee, and elbow joints at the time of joint replacement with approval of the ethics committee. The isolation of synovial T cells from synovial tissue was performed as follows. Synovial tissue was diced using sterile blades into 1-mm3 pieces and incubated for 4–5 h in medium containing 0.2% collagenase (type 1A, Sigma). After enzymatic digestion, tissue was passed twice through a metal mesh filter (100 µm pore size) to remove cell clumps and undissociated tissue. Cells were washed three times in medium to remove collagenase before the adherence depletion of monocytes and fibroblasts by 2-h incubation on plastic. Matched samples of peripheral blood, synovial tissue, and SFL were studied for chemokine receptor expression. The digestion of tissue with collagenase had no effect on CXCR4 expression, judged by the inability of collagenase to affect CXCR4 expression on PBL and IL-2/PHA-activated T cells (data not shown). Synovial tissue (1 mm3) was snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen at the time of surgery and stored at -70°C.
Cell culture and CD4 T short-term cell lines
CD4+CD45RA+ cells were enriched by negative selection with magnetic beads (Dynal, Oslo, Sweden) as described previously (4). To study the expression of CXCR4 on CD4 cells during differentiation from naive to primed cells CD4+CD45RA+ T cells were transferred to a 24-well flat-bottom plate (1 x 106 cells/well) and maintained in culture in the presence of IL-2. Cells were stimulated with PHA-H15 (Murex Biotech, Dartford, U.K.) at 10 µg/ml every 2 wk. To study the effect of the synovial microenvironment on CXCR4 expression, freshly isolated SF T cells were transferred to 24-well flat-bottom plates (1 x 106 cells/well) and maintained in culture in the presence of IFN-ß. After 6–7 days autologous SF was added back at a 50% dilution. Cell surface expression of CXCR4 expression was measured on matched peripheral blood T cells at the time of SF aspiration. Primed, short-term CD4 lines used to study the effect of cytokines/chemokines on the surface expression of CXCR4 were cultured as previously described (5). Cytokines were added to the cells on day 0, and after 24 h a second equal dose was added to the cells. Surface expression of CXCR4 was calculated as (median fluorescence intensity (MFI)CXCR4 - MFIcontrol) of cytokine treated cells divided by (MFICXCR4 - MFIcontrol) of cells cultured in medium alone and expressed as a percentage of the control value. To examine the effect of rheumatoid SF on the expression of CXCR4, CD4 T cells were incubated overnight in medium alone or in SF at various dilutions).
Flow cytometry
Analysis of cell surface molecules was performed using single-, two-, or three-color immunofluorescence as previously described (5). For analysis of chemokine receptor expression on T cell lines, PBL, synovial tissue, and SFL, cells were stained with anti-CXCR4, CCR5, and CXCR3 mAbs followed by FITC-labeled secondary Abs (Southern Biotechnology). The samples were analyzed on a Coulter EPICS XL Flow cytometer (Hialeah, FL) according to standard procedures (5). Cytometer calibration was standardized using fluorospheres (Immunocheck and Standardbrite, Coulter).
Immunohistochemistry
The expressions of CXCR4, SDF-1, and CD3 were studied by double immunofluorescence on 4-µm cryostat sections. Briefly, sections were fixed in cold acetone for 10 min and then incubated with primary mAbs followed by relevant secondary Abs. To avoid any possibility of cross-reactivity we used primary Abs of different species (mouse and rabbit). T lymphocytes were detected with a rabbit anti-CD3 and FITC-labeled anti-rabbit IgG. For the expression of CXCR4 and SDF-1 a three-layer method was used. Color intensification was achieved with streptavidin-Texas Red. Except for the overnight incubation at 4°C of primary Abs, all incubations were conducted for 1 h at room temperature. Images were captured with a SPOT-2 (Diagnostic Instruments, MI) digital camera and Image-Pro software (Media Cybernetics, Silver Spring, MD). Serial sections were stained by Diff-Quik (Dade Behring, Marburg, Germany).
Controlled detachment adhesion assay
Controlled detachment assays were performed as previously
described (20) with the following modifications.
Five-microliter dots of fibronectin or ICAM-1-Fc recombinant fusion
protein (20) (10 µg/ml) were spotted onto polystyrene
plates that were assembled as a lower wall in a parallel flow chamber,
blocked with 2% BSA in complete medium, and mounted on an inverted
phase contrast microscope. Treated T cells were allowed to adhere to
the coated fibronectin/ICAM-1 under static conditions for 5 min in the
presence or the absence of SDF-1 (100 ng/ml) before washing with
increasing shear flow. Cells remaining adherent were captured on
videotape after each change in flow rate (every 1 min) and expressed as
the percentage of cells remaining compared with the total before
washing. Three separate regions were counted, and results were
expressed as the mean and SD.
TGF-ß ELISA and depletion from SF
TGF-ß1 was measured by ELISA following the manufacturer’s instructions (R&D Systems DuoSet). Synovial samples from patients with rheumatoid arthritis were acid activated to release total TGF-ß following the manufacturer’s instructions. To deplete TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 from SF, acid-activated synovial samples were mixed with protein G-Sepharose beads coated with anti-TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 antiserum (monoclonal mouse TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 and polyclonal rabbit pan-specific TGF-ß, R&D clone 1D11 and Serotec, respectively) or as a control mouse anti-IL-8 (R&D clone 6217.111) and subjected to three rounds of bead depletion (30 min at 4°C).
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Tissues undergoing chronic inflammatory reactions contain
leukocyte infiltrates often organized into defined structures. To
determine whether aberrant chemokine receptor expression might explain
these lymphoid-like structures, we examined the distribution of
chemokine receptors in tissue sections from patients with RA. We
confirmed previous reports describing the distribution of CCR5 and
CXCR3 on synovial T cells (data not shown) (14). However,
we were surprised to find that large numbers of CD3-positive T cells,
distributed around vessels and within lymphoid aggregates in the
synovial membrane, expressed high levels of CXCR4 (Fig. 1
, a and b). In
addition, CXCR4 was expressed on other non-T cells in the synovium,
including B cells, macrophages, and synoviocytes (data not shown). To
confirm this finding, we isolated CD3-positive T cells from peripheral
blood, synovial membrane, and SF of patients with RA and analyzed their
CXCR4 expression by flow cytometry. Peripheral blood CD3 cells from
patients with RA expressed low levels of CXCR4 (Fig. 1c) in
contrast to SF and synovial membrane T cells (Fig. 1, d and
e). These findings suggested that T cells infiltrating the
synovial compartment are enriched for the expression of CXCR4 compared
with peripheral blood T cells.
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Several reports suggest that CXCR4 is poorly expressed or even
absent on CD45RO+-primed T cells (19, 23). Rheumatoid synovial T cells are almost exclusively of the
CD45RO+ phenotype, so we were surprised to
find high levels of CXCR4 on synovial T cells in situ. To clarify
the relationship between CXCR4 expression and T cell
differentiation, we examined the expression of CXCR4 on T cells
undergoing differentiation from a CD45RA+ to a
CD45RO+ state.
CD4+CD45RA+ T cells
isolated from peripheral blood were stimulated with PHA at 2-wk
intervals, and CXCR4 expression was measured by flow cytometry (Fig. 2, a and
b). These cells lost expression of CXCR4 within 48
h of initial stimulation, but then regained expression over the
following 4–5 days. Intriguingly, after two rounds of stimulation the
expression of CXCR4 declined, consistent with previous reports showing
low levels of CXCR4 on long-term T cell clones (23). T
cells within the synovial joint are highly differentiated
CD45RObrightRBdull cells
that have undergone multiple rounds of stimulation (3, 4, 5)
yet express high levels of CXCR4. Cells of an identical phenotype in
blood and in vitro culture do not express CXCR4. These results
suggested that factors present within the synovial microenvironment
might induce the high levels of CXCR4 observed on synovial T cells
in situ.
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To examine whether the rheumatoid synovial microenvironment
contains factors that up-regulate the expression of CXCR4, we isolated
SF T cells from patients with RA and measured the expression of CXCR4
on these cells over time in culture. Synovial T cells are fragile and
undergo apoptosis during culture in vitro unless rescued by appropriate
survival signals (5). We therefore cultured synovial T
cells in the presence of IFN-ß, which inhibits their apoptosis
without inducing proliferation, mimicking the phenotype of synovial T
cells in situ (5, 6). IFN-ß does not affect CXCR4
expression (see Fig. 4). Over 6 days of culture, the level of CXCR4 on
rheumatoid synovial T cells declined, approaching that observed in the
peripheral blood from the same individual taken at the time of SF
sampling. After 6 days, when autologous cell-free SF was added to the
cells for 24 h, the level of CXCR4 doubled (Fig. 3a), suggesting that
rheumatoid SF contains a factor responsible for the induction of CXCR4
expression.
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b). Furthermore, freshly isolated synovial T cells, which
express high levels of CXCR4, responded vigorously to SDF-1, with
strong adhesion to fibronectin compared with peripheral blood T cells
(Fig. 3c). These results indicate that the synovial
microenvironment is able to induce functional CXCR4 expression on
synovial T cells, leading to increased SDF-1-triggered cell adhesion to
fibronectin. TGF-ß stimulates functionally active CXCR4 expression on CD4 T cell lines
To identify potential factors within SF responsible for the
induction of CXCR4 expression on synovial T cells, we screened a large
panel of chemokines and cytokines for their effects on the induction of
CXCR4 expression on short-term CD4 T cell lines (Fig. 4, a and b). As a
control and to validate the culture system, we used IL-4, which is
absent in SF, but is known to stimulate the expression of CXCR4 on T
cells (24). We found that TGF-ß isoforms induced a
10-fold increase in the level of CXCR4 expressed on CD4 T cells after a
48-h incubation. IL-2, IL-10, and IL-15 produced modest 2-fold
increases in CXCR4 expression, with IL-4 inducing a 14-fold increase.
In contrast, PMA stimulation and exposure to SDF-1 led to
down-regulation of CXCR4, as previously described (25).
Combinations of TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 were not additive or synergistic
(data not shown)
Having established that TGF-ß1 could induce the expression of CXCR4
on CD4 T cells we next examined whether the CXCR4 was functionally
active by assessing the ability of these cells to mediate SDF-1
triggered adhesion to ICAM-1 (Fig. 4c) and fibronectin (Fig. 4d). Only TGF-ß1-stimulated cells expressing high levels
of CXCR4 were able to interact with fibronectin and ICAM-1 when treated
with SDF-1. Untreated T cells adhered weakly in the presence of SDF-1,
reflecting the low level of CXCR4 expression on these cells. In the
absence of SDF-1 there was no binding of T cells to either fibronectin
or ICAM-1. Together these results demonstrate that TGF-ß can induce
functional CXCR4 expression on CD4 T cells in vitro, because
stimulation of these cells with SDF-1 leads to increased cell
attachment to fibronectin and ICAM-1.
Rheumatoid SF contains high levels of TGF-ß responsible for the induction of CXCR4 expression
Previous reports have shown that the level of TGF-ß1 in SF is
high, in the range 2–20 ng/ml (26, 27). To determine
whether TGF-ß1 present within SF was responsible for the elevated
CXCR4 expression in vivo, we cultured CD4+ T cell
lines in the presence of dilutions of SF taken from six different
patients with RA. TGF-ß1 levels in these SF samples were assayed by
ELISA and compared with their ability to induce CXCR4 expression after
18 h (Fig. 5a). There was
a good correlation between the presence of TGF-ß1 in the SF and its
ability to induce CXCR4 expression. However, the levels of CXCR4
induced on T cells by SF consistently underestimated the actual levels
of TGF-ß1 compared with the standard curve for CXCR4 induction,
generated using purified TGF-ß1. This is probably due to the presence
of latent forms of TGF-ß1 that are detected by ELISA but remain
biologically inactive unless liberated by acid activation.
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b show that removal of TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 from SF in
four patients with RA led to a significant reduction in CXCR4
expression. Furthermore, the reduction in CXCR4 expression paralleled
the depletion in TGF-ß1 from SF (Fig. 5b). These results
strongly imply that TGF-ß1 is responsible for the high expression of
CXCR4 found on synovial T cells in vivo. SDF-1 is expressed on endothelial cells and in perivascular regions in synovial tissue
Both synovial T cells and TGF-ß-stimulated CD4 T cells express
functionally active CXCR4 (Figs. 3 and 4). SDF-1 mRNA has previously
been reported to be abundant in rheumatoid synovial tissue
(28). It was therefore of interest to study the
distribution of the SDF-1 within rheumatoid synovium to determine
whether its distribution might explain the perivascular localization of
CXCR4-expressing CD4 T cells in the rheumatoid synovium. Using an
anti-SDF-1 mAb, we found that SDF-1 was predominantly expressed by
endothelial venules within synovial tissue, although there was sparse
staining of synovial tissue in a perivascular distribution (Fig. 6). SDF-1 expression correlated with the
distribution of
CD4+CXCR4+-positive T cells
in perivascular lymphoid aggregates (Fig. 6b), suggesting
that SDF-1 is well positioned to activate the adhesion and therefore
lead to the retention of CXCR4-bearing T cells around blood vessels
within the rheumatoid synovium.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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CXCR4 is expressed on a wide variety of cells and plays an active role
in hemopoiesis, angiogenesis, embryonic development, and infection by
viruses such as HIV-1 (18). CXCR4 expression is
up-regulated on a number of cell types by cytokines, including IL-2,
IL-4 (24), IL-6 and stem cell factor (29),
VEGF, basic fibroblast growth factor (30), and TGF-ß
(23). In addition, IFN-, PMA, and SDF-1 have been shown
to down-regulate CXCR4 expression (12, 23, 25). We found
that TGF-ß1, -2, and -3 induce CXCR4 expression on cultured
peripheral blood CD4 T cells. While IL-2 and IL-15 are also capable of
inducing CXCR4 expression, they do so to a lesser extent. Therefore, a
diverse set of cytokines, signaling through different pathways, is able
to regulate CXCR4 expression in a variety of cell types.
Changes in the level of chemokine receptor expression are not the only method by which cells can modulate their responses to chemokines. The maturation of B cells decreases their responsiveness to SDF-1 despite mature B cells expressing higher levels of CXCR4 than pre-B cells (31). It was therefore important for us to test whether the high levels of CXCR4 observed on synovial T cells were functionally relevant. We found that rheumatoid synovial T cells adhere better to fibronectin in response to SDF-1 than peripheral blood T cells. Furthermore, the removal of T cells from the synovial compartment led to a decrease in their response to SDF-1 in parallel with a decrease in expression of CXCR4. Re-exposure of these T cells to autologous SF caused a rapid re-expression of CXCR4 and a corresponding increase in adhesion to fibronectin in response to SDF-1. These results suggest that the interaction of SDF-1 with CXCR4 contributes to the proadhesive phenotype of synovial T cells (7, 8) and consequently plays a role in regulating T cell accumulation within the synovial microenvironment.
We show that synovial-derived TGF-ß is capable of inducing the expression of CXCR4 on T cells, and that the level of TGF-ß1 present within SF directly correlates with its ability to induce CXCR4 expression. Moreover, the depletion of TGF-ß from SF leads to a significant reduction in the ability of SF to induce CXCR4 expression, suggesting that TGF-ß plays a key role in regulating the levels of CXCR4 on synovial T cells in vivo.
The TGF-ß family of proteins, is an expanding group of secreted signaling molecules with unique and potent immunoregulatory properties (32). In vitro, TGF-ß isoforms exert nearly identical effects that can be grouped into three broad areas: modulation of inflammatory cell function, growth inhibition and differentiation, and control of extracellular matrix production (32). Studies in animals and humans strongly suggest that TGF-ß is important in the pathogenesis of several diseases, including RA (32, 33). TGF-ß1 and -2 are expressed in rheumatoid synovial tissue and fluid and have been proposed to account for most of the immunosuppressive activity of SF in lymphocyte proliferation assays (26, 27). Injection of TGF-ß1 into the joints of normal rats or into joints in murine models of established arthritis induced marked synovitis, but prevented cartilage damage, suggesting that whereas TGF-ß can stimulate bone repair, it appears to actively contribute to synovitis (33, 34).
Recent studies have shown that SDF-1 is expressed by human bone marrow endothelium, biliary duct epithelial cells, and skin endothelium and may play a role in lymphocyte accumulation at these sites (35, 36). We show here that SDF-1 is expressed on synovial endothelial cells, suggesting that the persistent and inappropriate induction of CXCR4 by stromal-derived factors such as TGF-ß leads to the active SDF-1-driven retention of CD4 T cells in a perivascular distribution within the rheumatoid joint.
The current view on how differential lymphocyte accumulation within
tissues is regulated proposes that selectivity is determined during
leukocyte recruitment (9). However, our observations
suggest that T cell accumulation and persistence within the synovial
compartment may also occur because T cells are actively prevented from
emigrating as well as dying (5) in an abnormal
inflammatory microenvironment. Intraepithelial lymphocytes within the
gut provide a striking precedent for the active retention of T cells in
tissue microenvironments. Here the local production of TGF-ß induces
the expression of the integrin
Eß7 at the expense of
4ß7, leading to T cell
adhesion to E-cadherin expressed by gut epithelial cells
(37). This stromal, rather than endothelial, cell "area
code" leads to physiological and appropriate T cell retention.
However, in the chronically inflamed joint our findings suggest that
TGF-ß and SDF-1 contribute to the inappropriate retention of T cells
within the synovial microenvironment. Recent studies have shown that
synovial T cells also express
Eß7, reflecting the
TGF-ß-rich mircoenvironment of the joint (38). Thus,
inflammation in RA appears to persist as a direct result of the
sustained recruitment, inappropriate retention, and active survival of
highly differentiated T cells mediated by stromal-derived factors
associated with the inflamed synovial joint itself. Therefore,
targeting the synovial stromal microenvironment represents an important
alternative therapeutic strategy in chronically inflamed joints.
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Acknowledgments |
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Footnotes |
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2 C.D.B. and N.A. contributed equally to this work.
3 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Christopher D. Buckley, Division of Immunity and Infection, Medical Research Council Center for Immune Regulation, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom B15 2TT.
4 Abbreviations used in this paper: RA, rheumatoid arthritis; MFI, median fluorescence intensity; SDF-1, stromal-derived factor-1; VEGF, vascular endothelial cell growth factor; SF, synovial fluid; SFL, SF lymphocytes.
Received for publication March 6, 2000. Accepted for publication July 3, 2000.
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-dependent internalization of the chemokine receptor CXCR4 contributes to the inhibition of HIV replication. J. Exp. Med. 186:139.. Am. J. Pathol. 154:1125.Eß7 and its ligand E-cadherin in the synovium of patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Scand. J. Immunol. 44:293.[Medline]
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 D. Pilling, N. M. Tucker, and R. H. Gomer Aggregated IgG inhibits the differentiation of human fibrocytes J. Leukoc. Biol., June 1, 2006; 79(6): 1242 - 1251. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. F. Debes, M. E. Dahl, A. J. Mahiny, K. Bonhagen, D. J. Campbell, K. Siegmund, K. J. Erb, D. B. Lewis, T. Kamradt, and A. Hamann Chemotactic Responses of IL-4-, IL-10-, and IFN-{gamma}-Producing CD4+ T Cells Depend on Tissue Origin and Microbial Stimulus J. Immunol., January 1, 2006; 176(1): 557 - 566. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Balabanian, B. Lagane, S. Infantino, K. Y. C. Chow, J. Harriague, B. Moepps, F. Arenzana-Seisdedos, M. Thelen, and F. Bachelerie The Chemokine SDF-1/CXCL12 Binds to and Signals through the Orphan Receptor RDC1 in T Lymphocytes J. Biol. Chem., October 21, 2005; 280(42): 35760 - 35766. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Balabanian, B. Lagane, J. L. Pablos, L. Laurent, T. Planchenault, O. Verola, C. Lebbe, D. Kerob, A. Dupuy, O. Hermine, et al. WHIM syndromes with different genetic anomalies are accounted for by impaired CXCR4 desensitization to CXCL12 Blood, March 15, 2005; 105(6): 2449 - 2457. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Busso, N. Wagtmann, C. Herling, V. Chobaz-Peclat, A. Bischof-Delaloye, A. So, and E. Grouzmann Circulating CD26 Is Negatively Associated with Inflammation in Human and Experimental Arthritis Am. J. Pathol., February 1, 2005; 166(2): 433 - 442. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Burman, O. Haworth, D. L. Hardie, E. N. Amft, C. Siewert, D. G. Jackson, M. Salmon, and C. D. Buckley A Chemokine-Dependent Stromal Induction Mechanism for Aberrant Lymphocyte Accumulation and Compromised Lymphatic Return in Rheumatoid Arthritis J. Immunol., February 1, 2005; 174(3): 1693 - 1700. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Fiorito, L. Magrini, J. Adrey, D. Mailhe, and D. Brouty-Boye Inflammatory status and cartilage regenerative potential of synovial fibroblasts from patients with osteoarthritis and chondropathy Rheumatology, February 1, 2005; 44(2): 164 - 171. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C D Buckley, A Filer, O Haworth, G Parsonage, and M Salmon Defining a role for fibroblasts in the persistence of chronic inflammatory joint disease Ann Rheum Dis, November 1, 2004; 63(suppl_2): ii92 - ii95. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J J Haringman, J Ludikhuize, and P P Tak Chemokines in joint disease: the key to inflammation? Ann Rheum Dis, October 1, 2004; 63(10): 1186 - 1194. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. R. Foster, S. H. Masri, R. David, M. Jones, A. Datta, G. Lombardi, L. Runkell, C. de Dios, I. Sizing, M. J. James, et al. IFN-{alpha} Subtypes Differentially Affect Human T Cell Motility J. Immunol., August 1, 2004; 173(3): 1663 - 1670. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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I. Hecht, R. Hershkoviz, S. Shivtiel, T. Lapidot, I. R. Cohen, O. Lider, and L. Cahalon Heparin-disaccharide affects T cells: inhibition of NF-{kappa}B activation, cell migration, and modulation of intracellular signaling J. Leukoc. Biol., June 1, 2004; 75(6): 1139 - 1146. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. J. Curnow, K. Wloka, J. M. Faint, N. Amft, C. M. G. Cheung, V. Savant, J. Lord, A. N. Akbar, C. D. Buckley, P. I. Murray, et al. Topical Glucocorticoid Therapy Directly Induces Up-Regulation of Functional CXCR4 on Primed T Lymphocytes in the Aqueous Humor of Patients with Uveitis J. Immunol., June 1, 2004; 172(11): 7154 - 7161. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R. A. Bartolome, B. G. Galvez, N. Longo, F. Baleux, G. N. P. van Muijen, P. Sanchez-Mateos, A. G. Arroyo, and J. Teixido Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1{alpha} Promotes Melanoma Cell Invasion across Basement Membranes Involving Stimulation of Membrane-Type 1 Matrix Metalloproteinase and Rho GTPase Activities Cancer Res., April 1, 2004; 64(7): 2534 - 2543. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. H. Van Krinks, M. K. Matyszak, and J. S. Hill Gaston Characterization of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in inflammatory arthritis synovial fluid Rheumatology, April 1, 2004; 43(4): 453 - 460. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. D. Buckley Why do leucocytes accumulate within chronically inflamed joints? Rheumatology, December 1, 2003; 42(12): 1433 - 1444. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. Pilling, C. D. Buckley, M. Salmon, and R. H. Gomer Inhibition of Fibrocyte Differentiation by Serum Amyloid P J. Immunol., November 15, 2003; 171(10): 5537 - 5546. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. A. Molyneaux, H. Zinszner, P. S. Kunwar, K. Schaible, J. Stebler, M. J. Sunshine, W. O'Brien, E. Raz, D. Littman, C. Wylie, et al. The chemokine SDF1/CXCL12 and its receptor CXCR4 regulate mouse germ cell migration and survival Development, September 15, 2003; 130(18): 4279 - 4286. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. A. Mittal, V. R. Joshi, and A. Deshpande Stromal cell-derived factor-1{alpha} in rheumatoid arthritis Rheumatology, July 1, 2003; 42(7): 915 - 916. [Full Text] [PDF]
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Z. Ding, T. B. Issekutz, G. P. Downey, and T. K. Waddell L-selectin stimulation enhances functional expression of surface CXCR4 in lymphocytes: implications for cellular activation during adhesion and migration Blood, June 1, 2003; 101(11): 4245 - 4252. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. de la Rosa, N. Longo, J. L. Rodriguez-Fernandez, A. Puig-Kroger, A. Pineda, A. L. Corbi, and P. Sanchez-Mateos Migration of human blood dendritic cells across endothelial cell monolayers: adhesion molecules and chemokines involved in subset-specific transmigration J. Leukoc. Biol., May 1, 2003; 73(5): 639 - 649. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Weninger, H. S. Carlsen, M. Goodarzi, F. Moazed, M. A. Crowley, E. S. Baekkevold, L. L. Cavanagh, and U. H. von Andrian Naive T Cell Recruitment to Nonlymphoid Tissues: A Role for Endothelium-Expressed CC Chemokine Ligand 21 in Autoimmune Disease and Lymphoid Neogenesis J. Immunol., May 1, 2003; 170(9): 4638 - 4648. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Balabanian, J. Couderc, L. Bouchet-Delbos, A. Amara, D. Berrebi, A. Foussat, F. Baleux, A. Portier, I. Durand-Gasselin, R. L. Coffman, et al. Role of the Chemokine Stromal Cell-Derived Factor 1 in Autoantibody Production and Nephritis in Murine Lupus J. Immunol., March 15, 2003; 170(6): 3392 - 3400. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. L. Pablos, B. Santiago, M. Galindo, C. Torres, M. T. Brehmer, F. J. Blanco, and F. J. Garcia-Lazaro Synoviocyte-Derived CXCL12 Is Displayed on Endothelium and Induces Angiogenesis in Rheumatoid Arthritis J. Immunol., February 15, 2003; 170(4): 2147 - 2152. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Eddleston, S. C. Christiansen, and B. L. Zuraw Functional Expression of the C-X-C Chemokine Receptor CXCR4 by Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells: Regulation by Proinflammatory Mediators J. Immunol., December 1, 2002; 169(11): 6445 - 6451. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R. Gerli, C. Lunardi, and C. Pitzalis Unmasking the anti-inflammatory cytokine response in rheumatoid synovitis Rheumatology, December 1, 2002; 41(12): 1341 - 1345. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Okada, V. N. Ngo, E. H. Ekland, R. Forster, M. Lipp, D. R. Littman, and J. G. Cyster Chemokine Requirements for B Cell Entry to Lymph Nodes and Peyer's Patches J. Exp. Med., July 1, 2002; 196(1): 65 - 75. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. A. Luther, A. Bidgol, D. C. Hargreaves, A. Schmidt, Y. Xu, J. Paniyadi, M. Matloubian, and J. G. Cyster Differing Activities of Homeostatic Chemokines CCL19, CCL21, and CXCL12 in Lymphocyte and Dendritic Cell Recruitment and Lymphoid Neogenesis J. Immunol., July 1, 2002; 169(1): 424 - 433. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Valenzuela-Fernandez, T. Planchenault, F. Baleux, I. Staropoli, K. Le-Barillec, D. Leduc, T. Delaunay, F. Lazarini, J.-L. Virelizier, M. Chignard, et al. Leukocyte Elastase Negatively Regulates Stromal Cell-derived Factor-1 (SDF-1)/CXCR4 Binding and Functions by Amino-terminal Processing of SDF-1 and CXCR4 J. Biol. Chem., May 3, 2002; 277(18): 15677 - 15689. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. C. Blades, A. Manzo, F. Ingegnoli, P. R. Taylor, G. S. Panayi, H. Irjala, S. Jalkanen, D. O. Haskard, M. Perretti, and C. Pitzalis Stromal Cell-Derived Factor 1 (CXCL12) Induces Human Cell Migration into Human Lymph Nodes Transplanted into SCID Mice J. Immunol., May 1, 2002; 168(9): 4308 - 4317. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. J. Grant, S. Goddard, J. Ahmed-Choudhury, G. Reynolds, D. G. Jackson, M. Briskin, L. Wu, S. G. Hubscher, and D. H. Adams Hepatic Expression of Secondary Lymphoid Chemokine (CCL21) Promotes the Development of Portal-Associated Lymphoid Tissue in Chronic Inflammatory Liver Disease Am. J. Pathol., April 1, 2002; 160(4): 1445 - 1455. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Braley-Mullen, K. Chen, Y. Wei, and S. Yu Role of TGF{beta} in Development of Spontaneous Autoimmune Thyroiditis in NOD.H-2h4 Mice J. Immunol., December 15, 2001; 167(12): 7111 - 7118. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Nanki, K. Nagasaka, K. Hayashida, Y. Saita, and N. Miyasaka Chemokines Regulate IL-6 and IL-8 Production by Fibroblast-Like Synoviocytes from Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis J. Immunol., November 1, 2001; 167(9): 5381 - 5385. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Matthys, S. Hatse, K. Vermeire, A. Wuyts, G. Bridger, G. W. Henson, E. De Clercq, A. Billiau, and D. Schols AMD3100, a Potent and Specific Antagonist of the Stromal Cell-Derived Factor-1 Chemokine Receptor CXCR4, Inhibits Autoimmune Joint Inflammation in IFN-{gamma} Receptor-Deficient Mice J. Immunol., October 15, 2001; 167(8): 4686 - 4692. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. C. Hargreaves, P. L. Hyman, T. T. Lu, V. N. Ngo, A. Bidgol, G. Suzuki, Y.-R. Zou, D. R. Littman, and J. G. Cyster A Coordinated Change in Chemokine Responsiveness Guides Plasma Cell Movements J. Exp. Med., July 2, 2001; 194(1): 45 - 56. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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and 
) and absence (
and
) of SDF-1. TGF-ß1-treated cells (
) compared with control unexposed cells (•).
Synovial T cells were stimulated with SDF-1
