| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
,
,
Departments of
*
Molecular Biology and Biochemistry and
Pathology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697; and
The Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Long Beach, CA 90822
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
15,000 cases of high grade gliomas are diagnosed in the United
States, and these numbers are rising in both pediatric and adult
populations (1). The prognosis of patients with these
tumors is poor, and traditional therapies, such as surgical tumor
resection followed by external beam radiation and/or chemotherapy, have
done little to alter the fatal outcome of this disease. Even with
multimodality therapies, the mean life expectancy of patients with
glioblastoma multiforme is only 1 yr from the time of initial diagnosis
and only several months after its progression (2). Hence,
new strategies must be investigated for its treatment. Novel approaches
using immunotherapy are currently being explored for the treatment of
brain cancer as well as other solid tumors. In this regard, tumor cells
that have been genetically engineered to secrete immune enhancing
cytokines have been shown to elicit strong antitumor responses in
animal models of many different solid tumors (see Refs.
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 for review).
Reports of antitumor responses elicited by cytokine-secreting glioma
cells are fewer, and the results are not as extensive as studies with
other types of tumors. Ram et al. (11) demonstrated that
IL-2 secreted from transduced 9L rat glioma cells resulted in reduced
s.c. tumor formation, but was completely lethal and conferred no
survival advantage when implanted in the brain. Tjuvajev et al.
(12) reported similar results with RG-2 rat glioma cells
also genetically altered to secrete IL-2 or IFN-
. In this regard,
both the IL-2- and the IFN--secreting RG-2 cells exhibited
attenuated s.c. tumor growth, although no s.c. tumor regression was
observed, and no increase in survival was noted when the IL-2- or
IFN--secreting RG-2 cells were implanted intracranially
(i.c.)3
(3). In contrast, Fakhrai et al. (13)
reported that 9L glioma cells genetically modified to secrete IL-2 can
stimulate an effective i.c. antitumor response, but only when combined
with TGF-ß antisense therapy to abrogate TGF-ß production by the
IL-2-secreting 9L glioma cells. Furthermore, another group compared the
efficacy of IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-6, TNF-
, IFN-, or GM-CSF
secretion to induce an i.c. antitumor response in a spontaneously
arising murine astrocytoma model (14). Of the cytokines
evaluated in this study, only astrocytoma cells genetically altered to
secrete IL-2, IL-4, or TNF- elicited an effective antitumor response
that resulted in long-term survival (14).
Studies utilizing tumor cells altered to secrete cytokines have
revealed that certain cytokines that have the ability to activate APCs,
such as macrophages and dendritic cells, induce a more efficient
antitumor response that, in some cases, may result in the establishment
of long-lasting tumor-specific immunity. Tumor cells engineered to
secrete IL-4 (15, 16, 17) or GM-CSF (18) have
been shown to be efficient at inducing tumor immunity and have been
effective in destroying small established parental tumors or
noncytokine-secreting bystander tumor cells in a few tumor models
(17). In these studies, it appears that for dendritic
cells to become efficient APCs for tumor-specific Ags, the
cytokine-secreting tumor cells must be lethally irradiated, whereas
injection of the viable cytokine-secreting tumor cells may not be
rejected and result in progressive tumor growth (18).
Other cytokine genes such as IL-2, IL-7, and IFN-, when transfected
into tumor cells, induced tumor rejection, but long-lasting antitumor
immunity was not generated (18). In a different study,
mice were vaccinated with a mixture of irradiated leukemia cells
genetically modified to express GM-CSF or IL-4. It was reported that
bone marrow mononuclear cells harvested from these vaccinated animals
contained an increased number of dendritic cells and that transfer of
the bone marrow cells into tumor-bearing mice was associated with
their prolonged survival (19). Moreover, spleen cells from
the recipients of the bone marrow cells that contained an increased
number of dendritic cells showed specific cytotoxicity against parental
leukemic cells, suggesting that dendritic cells from the vaccinated
donor mice activated specific T cells in the tumor-bearing recipients
(19).
Transduction with M-CSF has also been used to improve antitumor responses, but has produced mixed results. Dorsch et al. (20) have demonstrated that tumors resulting from plasmacytoma cells engineered to secrete M-CSF have a marked increase of infiltrating macrophages; however, no suppression of tumor growth was observed. In contrast, Kimura (21) showed that L1210 leukemia cells expressing M-CSF were rejected by syngeneic mice and these mice were immune to rechallenge with parental cells. Similar results were observed by Walsh et al (22). using melanoma cells engineered to express M-CSF. Because dendritic cells do not possess M-CSF receptors (23), it is thought that this antitumor immune response is due to the Ag-presenting functions of the macrophages.
Expression of the M-CSF gene results in two different isoforms of the M-CSF protein due to alternative posttranscriptional splicing within exon 6. One form of the protein is secreted as a 45-kDa homodimeric glycoprotein, and the other form remains associated with the cell membrane (24). The secreted form (sM-CSF) induces proliferation and differentiation of monocyte progenitors; is responsible for the stimulation of the effector functions of macrophages such as cytokine production and enhanced tumoricidal activity; and may function as a chemoattractant for circulating monocytes. In the brain, sM-CSF is believed to induce proliferation and activation of microglial cells (25). The membrane-associated isoform (mM-CSF) has also been shown to be functional in that it is capable of stimulating macrophage colony formation of bone marrow stem cells (26). Recent work by Jadus et al. (27, 28) with T9 glioblastoma cells transduced with either the mM-CSF or the sM-CSF cDNA isoform has demonstrated that T9 cells expressing only the mM-CSF isoform, but not the secreted form, are killed in vitro by tumoricidal macrophages. This suggests that the membrane-associated cytokine may induce a stronger antitumor response than its soluble counterpart.
It is common to find microglial cells and macrophages in the cellular infiltrate of gliomas (29). Their role in these brain neoplasms is unclear. They often lack in vitro tumoricidal activity, and it has been suggested that they may even promote tumor growth by the production of growth factors and angiogenic factors (30). Many gliomas produce TGF-ß, which inhibits the immune system (31) and may suppress the actions of macrophages (32). In the presented study, we investigated the ability of glioblastoma mutiforme tumor cells to induce systemic immunity after genetically engineering them to express either the soluble or the membrane-associated isoforms of M-CSF in a syngeneic Fischer rat brain tumor model.
|
Materials and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
All cells were cultured in complete media (CM) consisting of RPMI 1640 (Life Technologies, Grand Island, NY) supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS (Life Technologies), and were maintained as adherent monolayers in T-75-cm2 culture flasks. Cells were incubated at 37°C in an atmosphere of 5% CO2 and 95% air, and passed biweekly using trypsin. The T9 glioblastoma tumor was originally induced by the repeated i.v. injection of N-nitrosomethylurea in a Fischer F344 rat and grows as an adherent cell line in vitro (33). T9 cells were provided by Dr. J. Yoshida (Department of Neurosurgery, Nagoya University, Japan). Previous work has shown that an i.c. injection of l x 105 T9 cells into the Fischer rat brain is 100% lethal in 20 to 25 days (34). The generation and characterization of T9/M-CSF clones were previously described (27). For these studies, T9 clones expressing mM-CSF included clones T9/mM-CSF(C2), T9/mM-CSF(F12), and T9/mM-CSF(F2), and a clone secreting M-CSF, T9/sM-CSF(H1). The 9L cells were obtained from Dr. Carol Kruse (University of Colorado Health Science Center, Denver, CO). It has been reported that T9 glioma cells are derived from the 9L glioma cell line (35). The Fischer rat-derived RT2 glioma was induced by the avian sarcoma virus, and the glioma cell line was provided by Dr. Yancy Gillespi (University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL) (36). The MadB106 breast adenocarcinoma cell line was induced by the i.v. injection of 9,10-dimethyl-1,2 benzanthracene in a Fischer F344 rat and was obtained from Dr. Craig Reynolds (National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD) (37). MadB106 cells develop lethal tumors when implanted s.c. or i.c. in Fischer 344 rats. NuTu-19 cells were provided by Dr. Thomas Hamilton (Fox Chase Cancer Center, Philadelphia, PA). NuTu-19 cells are an ovarian carcionma that spontaneously arose from ovarian tissue of a Fischer 344 rat (38) and is lethal when injected into Fischer rats (39).
Detection of mM-CSF by flow cytometry
Cells (5 x 105 cells) to be phenotyped were incubated with 2.5 µl of the anti-M-CSF Ab (Oncogene Sciences, Manhasset, NY) or 2.5 µl of an isotypic IgG1 Ab on ice for 1 h. The cells were washed twice with PBS containing 1% FBS and incubated in a 1/10 dilution of a FITC-labeled rabbit anti-rat Ab (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) for an additional hour on ice. The cells were washed three times. Ten thousand cells were analyzed on the EPICS Profile. Data were collected and then analyzed on the Multi2D program (Phoenix Flow Systems, San Diego, CA).
Animals
Inbred Fischer 344 rats weighing 150–175 g and ranging in age from 4 to 6 mo were obtained from Harlan (San Diego, CA) and used in all experiments. Animal transportation, use, and care were conducted in accordance with the U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research and Training and in accordance with the Animal Welfare Act (7 U.S.C. 2131 et. seq.). In addition, all procedures were performed in a licensed animal facility, University of California, Irvine, Public Health Service Animal Welfare Assurance A3416.01, National Institute of Health (10/29/87). They were housed in a climate-controlled vivarium and provided unlimited access to rat chow and water.
Tumor implantation
Intracranial tumor implantation. Animals were anesthetized by an i.m. injection of ketamine (87 mg/kg) and xylazine (6.5 mg/kg). The scalp hair was shaved, and a 15-mm incision was made with a scalpel over the cranial midline. Animals were placed in a stereotactic apparatus, and the bregma was located and used as a reference point for injections. A hand-held Dremel drill was used to create a shallow depression 3 mm to the right of the sagittal suture and l mm posterior to the coronal suture. Cells were washed twice in PBS, and a final cell suspension was made in PBS. Ten microliters of the appropriate tumor cell suspension were injected into the posterior parietal lobe of the brain at a depth of 4 mm using a Hamilton syringe and a 27-gauge needle secured to the arm of the stereotactic apparatus. The needle track was sealed with melted paraffin to prevent tumor cell extravasation, and the incision was closed with surgical staples.
Subcutaneous tumor implantation. Tumor cells for s.c. implantation were washed twice in PBS, and a final suspension was made in PBS. Tumors were induced by injecting a suspension of l x 107 cells in 100 µl of PBS into the left flank. Tumor growth was monitored by daily measurements of tumor diameter using calipers.
Electron microscopy
Animals were implanted i.c. with 1 x 106 T9/mM-CSF(C2) or T9/LXSN cells. After 2 to 6 days, animals were euthanized, and their brains were carefully removed and preserved in Bouin’s fixative (10% neutral buffered Formalin containing 2% glutaraldehyde). The site of tumor implantation was then identified and isolated for electron microscopy. Briefly, 1-mm sections of brain tissue from the implant site were embedded in epon, and 1-micron thick sections were prepared. Appropriate areas were then identified for the preparation of thin sections. Thin sections were cut, mounted on grids, and stained with osmium tetroxide. Sections were then viewed through a Zeiss electron microscope, and relevant areas were photographed.
Depletion of CD3+ T cells and passive transfer of T9 immunity
Spleens were harvested from animals that rejected T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells. Spleens were finely minced with scalpel blades; splenocytes were washed free from the white pulp of the minced spleen with 30 ml of CM and centrifuged for 10 min at 200 x g. RBC were lysed by resuspending splenocyte pellets in Tris-buffered ammonium chloride (5 ml/spleen) and incubating cells at room temperature for 2 min. Splenocytes were washed twice in 30 ml of CM and resuspended in PBS at a final concentration of 1 x 108 splenocytes/ml. Splenocytes were divided into a complement control and an experimental group and stored on ice. Mouse anti-rat CD3 IgM (1 mg/ml; Harlan Bioproducts for Science, Indianapolis, IN) was added to the experimental splenocytes at a 1/100 dilution and incubated on ice for 30 min. The splenocytes were next washed with 10 ml of PBS containing 1% FBS. Cedarlane Low-Tox-M rabbit complement (Accurate Chemical and Scientific, Westbury, NY) was added to both control and experimental splenocytes at a 1/10 dilution and incubated at 37°C for 1 h. Splenocytes were washed with PBS, and a small sample from each group was assessed for viability and cell depletion using a hemacytometer and trypan blue. Naive rats were injected i.p. with 1 x 108 complement control splenocytes or splenocytes depleted of CD3+ T cells suspended in 1 ml of PBS. The next day, animals were implanted i.c. with 1 x 105 T9 parental cells.
In vitro T cell immune responses
Two in vitro tests were used to determine whether anti-T9 T cell responses were generated in vivo. These tests included the mixed lymphocyte-tumor reaction (MLTR) and the CTL assay.
The MLTR was done using a proliferative-based assay (40). Sixty thousand unfractionated splenocytes were placed in each well of a 96-well U-bottom microtiter plate. Stimulator tumor cells were used at a 10 lymphocyte to 1 tumor cell ratio. The stimulator cells were rapidly freeze thawed twice before being cultured with the lymphocytes. The cultures were pulsed with 1 µCi of [3H]TdR (Amersham, Boston, MA) for the last 8 h of the reaction on day 4, which is the optimal day of the reaction. When freeze-thawed killed T cells were plated alone and pulsed with [3H]TdR, they incorporated less than 200 cpm. The cultures were then aspirated on glass fiber filters using PHD cell harvester and counted on a Beckmann scintillation counter. Data are expressed as cpm of the average of triplicate cultures ± SDs.
For the CTL assay, T cells were enriched from the spleen using the BioTex (Edmonton, Canada) purification columns. Splenocytes from either nonimmune or immune rats were prepared into a single cell suspension, and 1 x 108 cells were passed through the column. Yields of the cells averaged 20%, of which >95% were CD3+ T cells. The CTL assay was performed as previously described (41). The 51Cr-labeled target cells (5 x 103 cells/well) were incubated with varying numbers of effector cells in a final volume of 200 µl of CM in V-bottom microtiter plates. E:T ratios started at 100:1 for the freshly isolated splenocytes or 40:1 for the MLTR-activated lymphocytes and were serially diluted 2-fold, four times. The plates were spun down after 6 h of incubation, and 100 µl of the culture supernatant was removed and counted for 51Cr using a Beckmann scintillation counter. Maximum 51Cr release was achieved by freeze thawing the cells three times in liquid nitrogen. The specific release was calculated using the standard cytotoxicity equation: {[(experimental 51Cr release) - (spontaneous 51CR release)]/[(maximal 51Cr release) - (spontaneous 51Cr release)]} x 100 (Ref. 41). Data are presented as the mean specific release of triplicate cultures ± SD.
Statistics
The significance of difference in animal survival was determined by a one-tailed Fisher’s exact test, and p-values <0.05 were considered significant. For the in vitro tests, Student’s t tests were performed and p-values <0.05 were also considered significant.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
T9 glioblastoma cells were transduced with a retroviral expression
vector (LXSN) containing the cDNA gene for the secreted (T9/sM-CSF) or
membrane-associated isoform (T9/mM-CSF) of M-CSF. Clone T9/sM-CSF(H1)
was shown to secrete M-CSF, as determined by ELISA, at a level of 2000
pg/ml when 1 x 106 cells were cultured in
10 ml of media for 3 days. sM-CSF was shown to be biologically active
by its ability to induce macrophage colonies from rodent bone marrow
samples. T9/sM-CSF(H1) did not express any detectable mM-CSF, as
determined by flow cytometry (Fig. 1
).
Several clones (T9/mM-CSF(C2), T9/mM-CSF(F12), and T9/mM-CSF(F2)) were
selected for their expression of mM-CSF (Fig. 1). Flow-cytometric
analysis indicated that clone T9/mM-CSF(C2) expressed a high level of
M-CSF on its cell surface (9.2 arbitrary fluorescence units, as
determined by the Coulter modified logarithmic scale using the raw
data), whereas clone T9/mM-CSF(F12) expressed a much lower level of
mM-CSF (3.75 arbitrary fluorescence units), and clone T9/mM-CSF(F2)
even lower (2.5 arbitrary fluorescence units; isotype controls
expressed 0.134 arbitrary units). T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells were effectively
killed by rodent bone marrow macrophages in an in vitro coculture
experiment, but T9/sM-CSF(H1) and parental T9 glioblastoma cells were
not (27, 28). Clones T9/mM-CSF(C2) and T9/sM-CSF(H1) did
not differ in their in vitro growth rate, measured by doubling time
during logarithmic growth; expression of MHC class I, class II, and
ICAM-1 (CD54) surface Ags (as determined by flow cytometry); or
morphology from parental T9 or vector control cells (T9/LXSN, data not
shown). Parental T9 and T9/LXSN cells did not express any detectable
M-CSF on their cell surface and did not secrete detectable M-CSF
protein.
|
Animals were implanted i.c. with l x
105 T9/mM-CSF(C2), T9/sM-CSF(H1), T9/LXSN, or T9
parental cells. The results shown in Fig. 2
indicate that animals injected with T9/sM-CSF(H1) cells have a slightly
prolonged survival compared with control animals implanted with T9
parental or T9/LXSN cells, but ultimately succumb to progressive tumor
growth. This was not the case, however, when animals were implanted
with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells, in which 80% (8/10) of the animals survived
the intracranial challenge. These long-term survivors appeared normal
and did not show any signs of neurological deficiency. Rejection of
different T9/mM-CSF clones expressing different levels of M-CSF on
their surface correlated with the level of membrane expression, as
determined by flow cytometry. In this regard, clone T9/mM-CSF(F12),
which showed a much lower level of expression than clone T9/mM-CSF(C2),
was rejected in only 20% of animals (2/10), and clone T9/mM-CSF(F2),
which showed even lower levels of expression than clone T9/mM-CSF(F12),
was not rejected by any animals (0/10) when 1 x
105 cells were implanted i.c. (49).
Current studies with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells suggest that extended
long-term culture over several years may reduce the level of M-CSF
expression on the surface of T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells, and consequently
attenuate the induced i.c. antitumor response.
|
To analyze the early events in the destruction of T9/mM-CSF(C2)
cells in the brain, animals were implanted i.c. with T9/LXSN or
T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells, and after 2 to 6 days, their brains were removed
and prepared for electron microscopy. Fig. 3
is a representative electron micrograph of the implantation site and
shows the presence of numerous macrophage-like cells, many of which are
in physical contact with T9/mM-CSF(C2) tumor cells. Two lymphocytes are
also shown adjacent to the macrophage-like cells and the T9/mM-CSF(C2)
cell. The appearance of macrophage-like cells was unique to
T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells, as they were not seen in proliferating T9/LXSN or
T9 parental gliomas. Electron microscopy of the T9/mM-CSF(C2) injection
site 6 days after implantation showed marked numbers of inflammatory
cells, including numerous lymphocytes, scattered macrophages, and
evidence of marked perivascular cuffing and exocytosis, with no
evidence of remaining viable tumor cells.
|
Animals that survived the i.c. challenges with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells
were subjected to i.c. rechallenges with either parental T9 cells or
another syngeneic tumor. The results shown in Fig. 4 demonstrate that the initial rejection of
T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells resulted in complete immunity to a subsequent i.c.
challenge with 1 x 105 T9 parental glioma
cells (Fig. 4A). However, no immunity was present against a
syngeneic breast adenocarcinoma, MadB106 (Fig. 4B).
|
Passive transfer of 1 x 108
unfractionated spleen cells from T9/mM-CSF(C2)-immunized animals into
naive recipients resulted in immunity to i.c. challenge with 1 x
105 T9 parental cells (3/4 survivors, Fig. 5). However, transfer of 1 x
108 immune spleen cells depleted of T cells by
anti-CD3 Ab and complement abrogated the transfer of immunity (0/6
survivors).
|
A). No responses were observed
using splenocytes from naive nonimmune rats. Interestingly, splenocytes
from T9/mM-CSF(C2)-immunized rats proliferated in response to several
syngeneic rat gliomas, i.e., T9, 9L, D74, and RT2 (Fig. 6B).
This suggests that a glioma-specific Ag(s) may exist and that
T9/mM-CSF(C2) immunization may prime lymphocytes to respond in vitro to
this glioma-specific Ag(s).
|
). In one representative experiment (of four
performed), little or no tumor- specific CTL activity was detected
using splenocytes from T9/mM-CSF(C2)-immunized rats, as measured by
6-h 51Cr release assays. When purified T cells
were isolated from the spleens of immunized rats, minimal CTL activity
was observed even at a 100:1 E:T ratio. To determine whether CTLs could
be generated in vitro, lymphocytes not used for the experiment in Fig. 6
B were placed in culture for 1 wk in a MLTR using T9
stimulator cells. These lymphocytes were tested in a CTL assay against
three rat glioma targets (Table I). The
results showed that little or no CTL activity could be detected.
|
|
We observed that 100% of animals (10/10) injected s.c. with
l x 107 viable T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells rejected
their tumor in 1 wk (Fig. 8). This was not
the case, however, when animals were injected with T9/sM-CSF(H1) or
T9/LXSN cells, each of which progressively formed large, ulcerating
tumors. Animals that rejected the s.c. injection of T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells
were completely resistant to i.c. rechallenge of 1 x
105 parental T9 cells (6/6 rats). Therefore, we
investigated whether T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells could be used as a s.c.
vaccine to induce an immune response that could protect an animal from
a simultaneous implant of parental T9 cells in the brain. Animals were
implanted i.c. with 1 x 104 or 1 x
105 parental T9 glioma cells and then received a
single s.c. inoculation with either l x 107
T9/mM-CSF(C2) or T9/LXSN cells. Fig. 9A demonstrates that a single s.c.
vaccination with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells was effective in protecting 100%
(6/6) of the animals receiving a simultaneous i.c. injection of 1
x 104 T9 parental cells. When 1 x
105 parental T9 cells were given i.c., s.c.
immunization with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells was effective in saving 41%
(7/17) of the animals (p = 0.04).
|
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The presented studies indicate that the response to M-CSF-transduced
tumor cells is complex. T9 glioma cells expressing the secreted isoform
of M-CSF failed to elicit an effective antitumor response when
implanted either in the brain or s.c. This observation is similar to
our experience with T9 glioma cells genetically engineered to secrete
other cytokines such as TNF- or IL-2, neither of which induced
rejection of the tumor when implanted in the brain (Graf et al.,
unpublished). In contrast, T9 cells expressing the membrane-associated
isoform of M-CSF are effectively rejected, and such animals develop
tumor immunity, for they are completely resistant to i.c. rechallenge
with parental T9 cells. This suggests that a membrane-bound cytokine is
more potent than its soluble counterpart. Moreover, immunity was T cell
mediated because spleen cells could transfer immunity to naive
recipients and this was abrogated by the depletion of
CD3+ T cells. Although little CTL activity
against parental T9 cells was seen, lymphocytes from
T9/mM-CSF(C2)-immunized rats did specifically proliferate in response
to several syngeneic glioma cell lines, including parental T9
cells.
T9 glioma rejection appeared to be related to the level of expression of mM-CSF on the tumor cell membrane. Although 80% of the animals rejected an i.c. implant of clone T9/mM-CSF(C2), which expressed the highest level of mM-CSF, only 20% could reject clone T9/mM-CSF(F12), which expressed a much lower level of mM-CSF, and no animals rejected clone T9/mM-CSF(F2), which expressed the lowest level of mM-CSF. These differences were not due to changes in the levels of expression of MHC proteins because each of these clones showed similar levels of MHC class I and class II Ags, which were analogous to the levels expressed on T9 parental and T9/LXSN cells.
Histological analysis of the T9/mM-CSF(C2) tumor site 2 days after i.c. injection revealed infiltration of the tumor by numerous macrophage-like cells, many of which were in close physical contact with T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells. This was followed several days later by a marked influx of lymphocytes with evidence of perivascular cuffing and exocytosis. Although further work is needed, our studies suggest that the macrophage-like cells that may represent endogenous microglial cells are responsible for tumor destruction. It has been shown that microglial cells are tumoricidal (42, 43). These macrophage-like cells may be responsible for initiating the primary events leading to the destruction of the T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells. It is intriguing to note that only the T9/mM-CSF tumors were destroyed, while the T9/sM-CSF tumors were not, indicating that M-CSF must be present on the surface of the glioma cell to elicit the tumoricidal responses. Jadus et al. (27, 28) have suggested that the membrane-bound M-CSF molecules may provide a molecular bridge between the macrophages and the tumor cells and directly induce the tumoricidal effects of the macrophages. However, while macrophages were the initial cells infiltrating T9/mM-CSF(C2) tumors, this was later followed by influxes of inflammatory cells, including numerous lymphocytes with the development of systemic T cell immunity. In this regard, passive transfer experiments demonstrated that glioma-specific immunity could be transferred to naive rats by splenocytes collected from T9/mM-CSF(C2)-immunized rats, and this was abrogated by depletion of CD3+ T cells. Moreover, the immunity induced by T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells was specific for glioma cells, as these rats could not reject i.c. challenges of a syngeneic breast adenocarcinoma. It is tempting to postulate that infiltrating macrophages have two roles in this model. First, they kill the T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells in a nonspecific manner through the M-CSF/M-CSF receptor bridge; and second, they phagocytize tumor debris and present processed tumor Ags to T cell precursors, thereby inducing T cell immunity. We believe that endogenous brain-associated macrophage/microglial cells are responsible for this immunizing effect because dendritic cells do not possess M-CSF receptors (23), whereas microglial cells do express M-CSF receptors (44, 45) and are known to act as APCs (46, 47).
T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells (but not T9/sM-CSF(H1) or T9/LXSN cells) were also
rejected when injected s.c. This indicates that the host’s immune
cells are capable of rejecting mM-CSF-transduced cells outside of the
brain. Subcutaneous rejection resulted in systemic immunity because
these animals were completely resistant to a subsequent rechallenge
with parental T9 cells in the brain. Based on this, we investigated
whether a single s.c. inoculation of T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells could generate
an effective systemic antitumor response that could protect an animal
from a simultaneous intracerebral implant of parental T9 cells. Using
this model, we were able to save 100% of animals given an i.c. implant
of 1 x 104 parental T9 cells and 41% of
the animals given an i.c. implant of 1 x
105 parental T9 cells. Thus, the result was
clearly related to the dose of tumor in the brain. It is noteworthy
that in these experiments, viable T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells injected s.c.
formed a palpable tumor nodule that grew for 5 to 7 days, at which
point the nodule underwent accelerated regression in all animals. It is
during this period of regression, beginning at about day 7, that the
generation of tumor-specific immunity would most likely occur. At this
point, the i.c. parental T9 glioma has undoubtedly become well
established in the brain.
In summary, we have demonstrated in a syngeneic Fischer rat T9 glioblastoma model that tumor cells expressing mM-CSF can elicit an immune response resulting in systemic tumor immunity, whereas T9 glioblastoma cells secreting M-CSF fail to elicit such a response. It appears that macrophages are responsible for the initial destruction of T9/mM-CSF cells; however, glioma-specific immunity is transferred by T lymphocytes. Furthermore, we demonstrated that s.c. inoculation of T9/mM-CSF(C2) cells is effective in treating an i.c. T9 glioma. These findings may be important in the clinical application of mM-CSF-transduced glioma cells for the treatment of malignant brain tumors, in which such vaccines could be used to prevent tumor recurrence after initial surgical resection.
Note.
During the review of this manuscript, Soo Hoo et al. (48) reported that P815 tumor cells engineered to express the membrane form of GM-CSF were much more immunogenic and were able to elicit an effective antitumor immune response in a syngeneic mouse model.
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
|
Footnotes |
|---|
2 Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Martin R. Graf at the current address: Department of Anatomy, Virginia Commonwealth University, P.O. Box 709, 1101 East Marshall Street, Richmond, VA 23298. E-mail address:
3 Abbreviations used in this paper: i.c., intracranial; s, secreted; CM, complete medium; m, membrane-associated; MLTR, mixed lymphocyte-tumor reaction.
Received for publication April 29, 1999. Accepted for publication September 3, 1999.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
. Cancer Res. 55:1902. maintains the viability of murine epidermal Langerhans cells in culture, but in contrast to granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor, without inducing their functional maturation. J. Exp. Med. 171:159.This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  L. Wang, G.-G. Zheng, C.-H. Ma, Y.-M. Lin, H.-Y. Zhang, Y.-Y. Ma, J.-H. Chong, and K.-F. Wu A Special Linker between Macrophage and Hematopoietic Malignant Cells: Membrane Form of Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor Cancer Res., July 15, 2008; 68(14): 5639 - 5647. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. M. Prins, N. Craft, K. W. Bruhn, H. Khan-Farooqi, R. C. Koya, R. Stripecke, J. F. Miller, and L. M. Liau The TLR-7 Agonist, Imiquimod, Enhances Dendritic Cell Survival and Promotes Tumor Antigen-Specific T Cell Priming: Relation to Central Nervous System Antitumor Immunity J. Immunol., January 1, 2006; 176(1): 157 - 164. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. W. B. Jeffes, J. G. Zhang, N. Hoa, A. Petkar, C. Delgado, S. Chong, A. Obenaus, R. Sanchez, S. Khalaghizadeh, T. Khomenko, et al. Antiangiogenic Drugs Synergize with a Membrane Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor-Based Tumor Vaccine to Therapeutically Treat Rats with an Established Malignant Intracranial Glioma J. Immunol., March 1, 2005; 174(5): 2533 - 2543. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 X.-M. Dai, X.-H. Zong, V. Sylvestre, and E. R. Stanley Incomplete restoration of colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) function in CSF-1-deficient Csf1op/Csf1op mice by transgenic expression of cell surface CSF-1 Blood, February 1, 2004; 103(3): 1114 - 1123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Chen, T. Douglass, E. W. B. Jeffes, Q. Xu, C. C. Williams, N. Arpajirakul, C. Delgado, M. Kleinman, R. Sanchez, Q. Dan, et al. Living T9 glioma cells expressing membrane macrophage colony-stimulating factor produce immediate tumor destruction by polymorphonuclear leukocytes and macrophages via a "paraptosis"-induced pathway that promotes systemic immunity against intracranial T9 gliomas Blood, July 30, 2002; 100(4): 1373 - 1380. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. M. Liau, E. R. Jensen, T. J. Kremen, S. K. Odesa, S. N. Sykes, M. C. Soung, J. F. Miller, and J. M. Bronstein Tumor Immunity within the Central Nervous System Stimulated by Recombinant Listeria monocytogenes Vaccination Cancer Res., April 1, 2002; 62(8): 2287 - 2293. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. R. Graf, R. M. Prins, and R. E. Merchant IL-6 Secretion by a Rat T9 Glioma Clone Induces a Neutrophil-Dependent Antitumor Response with Resultant Cellular, Antiglioma Immunity J. Immunol., January 1, 2001; 166(1): 121 - 129. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. R. Walker, T. Calzascia, V. Schnuriger, N. Scamuffa, P. Saas, N. de Tribolet, and P.-Y. Dietrich The Brain Parenchyma Is Permissive for Full Antitumor CTL Effector Function, Even in the Absence of CD4 T Cells J. Immunol., September 15, 2000; 165(6): 3128 - 3135. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
